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CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES 


OR 


A COIMPENDIUM 


ROMAN AND GRECIAN 

ANTIQUITIES; 


WITH 


A SKETCH OF ANCIENT MYTHOLOGY. 

> / 

BY JOSEPH SALKELP. _. ; 

NEW-YORK: 

PUBLISHED BY ALEXANDER V. BLAKE, 

NO. 77 fulton-street. 






Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1844, by 
ALEXANDER V. BLAKE, 

In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the Southern District 
of New York. 





• ? » 



PREFACE. 


This work is designed as a manual of Classical Anti¬ 
quities, and is divided into two parts : the first containing 
an account of the political institutions, religion, military 
and naval affairs, arts and sciences, manners, customs, 
&c., pertaining to the Romans ; and the second, those re¬ 
lating to the Grecians. 

Most of the works in use, which treat of the Antiquities 
of these celebrated nations, are so copious and so inter¬ 
mingled with Greek or Latin quotations, that, though they 
may be highly valuable to the classical scholar as works 
of reference, they are rendered less useful to the classical 
pupils as common text-books. There have, it is true, been 
published, in this country, one or two small volumes in 
which it is attempted to describe the Antiquities of the 
Romans, but these works are so contracted in matter as 
to be either partially or entirely deficient in many impor¬ 
tant subjects of which they profess to treat. The author 
has endeavored to adopt a medium course, by avoiding too 
great copiousness as well as a scanty conciseness of mat¬ 
ter, and he trusts his treatise will be found sufficiently 
comprehensive for general use in academies and high- 
schools, as well as in colleges. 

In the prosecution of his undertaking, he has availed 
him self of every source of information within his reach, 



iv 


PREFACE. 


and he has freely borrowed w’hatever he thought adapted 
to his purpose. But in no case has he drawn from any 
source of questionable authority. In addition to consult¬ 
ing the classic authors themselves, he has profited from 
the writings of Kennet, Adam, Raper, Middleton, Arbuth- 
not, Gesner, Duncan, Potter, Barthelemi, (Travels of 
Anacharsis,) Cramer, Niebuhr, Burton, Mitford, Gillies, 
Rollin, Gibbon, and others. 

To render the work more valuable, he has added a 
sketch of the Mythology of the Grecians and Romans. 

The author has studied to make his work not only use¬ 
ful in matter^ but also in manner. Most compilers of 
Grecian and Roman antiquities have overlooked a very 
important object, namely, a systematic order or arrange¬ 
ment of the subjects. The convenience and advantage 
of the regular arrangement of the subjects treated of in 
the present volume, will, it is thought, be readily admitted, 
especially by instructors and learners. 

Jan. 1844. 


CONTENTS OF ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 


CHAPTER I. 

GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 

Page. 

Sect. 1. A General Geographical View of the Ro¬ 
man Empire, its Boundaries and Divis¬ 
ions, .13 

2. The City of Rome, Situation, Public Build¬ 
ings, &c. . . ’.15 

CHAPTER H. 

CIVIL GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL ECONOMY OF ROME. 

Sect. 1. The Inhabitants of Rome, Patricians, Equi- 

tes. Plebeians, Slaves, &c., .... 22 

2. Names of the Romans, Gentesy FamilicBj 

&c.,.30 

3. Magistrates,—Kings, Interrex, Consuls, 

Praetors, Censors, Tribunes, and Quaes¬ 
tors, .33 

4. Other Magistrates,—Dictator, Master of 

Horse, Decemviri, Military Tribunes, &c. 45 

5. Public Assemblies, Comitia, Curiata, Cen- 

turiata, TributUy .48 

6. The Senate, its Consultations, Decrees, 

Power, &c.,.54 


1* 









vi 


CONTENTS. 


Page 

Sect. 7. Courts of Justice, and Judicial Proceed¬ 
ings in Civil and Criminal Trials, . . 64 

8. Punishments,.72 

9. Public and Private Rights of Roman Citi¬ 

zens, and of Foreigners,. 75 

10. Revenues, and Administration of Finance, 83 


CHAPTER III. 

MILITARY AND NAVAL AFFAIRS OF THE ROMANS. 

Sect. 1. Manner of Declaring War, and Levying 

Soldiers,.86 

2. Division of Troops in the Roman Army, . 89 

3. Discipline, Marches, and Encampments, . 92 

4. Order of Battle, Standards, Signals, Sieges, 

&c.,.96 

5. Military Rewards, Triumphs, Punish¬ 

ments, and Pay,.102 

6. Different Kinds of Ships, with their Parts, 

Ornaments, &c.,.108 

7. Mariners, Naval Officers, and Naval En¬ 

gagements, .113 


CHAPTER IV, 

RELIGION OF THE ROMANS. 


Sect. 1. Roman Deities and Sacred Places, . .116 

2. Ministers of Religion,— Pontijices, Au- 
gures, Haruspices, Quindecemviri, Fe- 
ciales, Flamines, &c.,.118 











CONTENTS, 


vii 


Page . 

3. Religious Rites, Prayers, Vows, Sacri¬ 

fices, Purifications, and Oaths, . . . 128 

4. Divination and Augury,.133 

5. Religious Festivals of the Romans, . . 135 


CHAPTER V. 

PUBLIC GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS OF THE ROMANS. 
Sect. 1. Games and Shows of the Circus, Athletic 


Exercises, &c.,.140 

2. Gladiatorial Shows,.143 

3. The Theatre and Drama,.147 


CHAPTER VI. 

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS OF THE ROMANS. 


Sect. 1. Dwellings, Furniture, &c.,.152 

2. Dress of the Romans, with their Orna¬ 

ments, &c.,.155 

3. Marriage Customs, and Divorce, . . . 160 

4. Education of Children,.165 

6. Manners and Customs in Private Life, 

Entertainments, &c.,.167 

6. Occupations, Arts and Sciences, . . . 172 

7. Treatment of the Dead, Funeral Rites, 

&c., &c.,.175 











viii 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER VII. 

TIME, MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEY OF THE 
ROMANS. 

Pack. 

‘f?T. 1. Division of Time,.181 

2. Dry and Liquid Measures, Measures of 

Length, and Weights,.186 

3. Money of the Romans, . 188 




ANTIQUITIES OF GREECE. 


CHAPTER 1. 

GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY. 

Page. 

Sect. 1, A General Geographical View of Greece, 

its Boundaries and Divisions, . . . .195 

. 2.. Athens, its Situation, Public Buildings, &c. 197 
. 3. Sparta .or Lacedaemon,.205 


CHAPTER II. 

CIVIL GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL ECONOMY OF THE 
ATHENIANS. 

Sect. 1. Inhabitants of Athens,—Citizens, For- 

.eigners, and Slaves,.208 

2. Magistrates,—Archons, Phylarchs, De- 

marchs. The Eleven, &c.,.211 

3. Public Assemblies, Ordinary and Extra¬ 

ordinary, .214 

4. The Council, or Senate of Five Hundred, 216 

5. The Court of Areopagus, .218 

6. Other Courts of Justice, and Judicial Pro¬ 

ceedings, .220 

7. Judgments and Accusations,.222 











X 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Sect. 8. Punishments and Rewards,.224 

9. Revenues and Administration of Finance, 226 
10. The Council of Amphictyons, .... 228 


CHAPTER III. 

CIVIL GOVERNMENT OF THE LACEDJEMONIANS. 
Sect. 1. Inhabitants of Laconia,—Citizens of Spar¬ 


ta and the Country, Helots, &c., . , . 230 

2. Magistrates of Sparta,—Kings, Senate, 

Ephori, &c., their powers, &c., . . . 233 

3. Public Assemblies, the Greater and the 

Less,.235 

4. Rewards and Punishments,.236 


. CHAPTER IV 

MILITARY AND NAVAL AFFAIRS OF THE GREEKS. 

Sect. 1. Manner of declaring War and levying 

Soldiers,.237 

2. Different Kinds of Soldiers, their Armor 

and Arms, and Engines of War, . . . 239 

3. Military Officers, Division and Forms of 

the Army, &c.,.244 

4. Order of Battle, Signals, Treatment of the 

Slain, Military Punishments, and Re¬ 
wards, .247 

5. Different Kinds of Ships, with their Parts, 

Ornaments, &c.,.249 

6. Naval Officers, Mariners, and Naval En¬ 

gagements, ......... 251 











CONTENTS. 


Xl 


CHAPTER V. 

RELIGION OF THE GREEKS. 


Sect. 1. The Grecian Deities, Sacred Places, and 

Ministers of Religion,. 253’ 

2. Religious Rites, Prayers, Sacrifices, Liba¬ 

tions, Purifications, and Oaths, . . . 255 

3. Divination and Oracles, Oracle of Dodo- 

na, of Trophonius, of Delphi, &c., . . 259 

4. Religious Festivals of the Grecians,—The 

Panathenea, Dionysia, Eleusinian, &c., 264 


CHAPTER VI. 

PUBLIC GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS OF THE GREEKS. 

Sect. 1. Athletic Exercises,—Running, Leaping, 

Wrestling, Boxing, &c., ..267 

2. The Games—Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, 

and Isthmian,.269 

3. ' The Theatre and Drama,.272 


CHAPTER VII. 

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS OF THE GREEKS. 

Sect. 1. Dwellings, Furniture, &c.,.274 

2. Dress of the Greeks,.275 

* 3. Marriage Customs, and Condition of Fe¬ 
males in Greece,.277 









CONTENTS. 


•xii 


Page.' 

Sect. 4. Education of Children,.280 

5. Manners and Customs in Private Life, 

Food, Entertainments, &c., .... 282 

6. Occupations, Arts and Sciences, . . . 284 

7. Treatment of the Dead, Funeral Rites, &c. 287 


CHAPTER VIII. 

TIME, MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEY OF THE 
GREEKS. 

Sect. 1. Division of Time,—Years, Months, De¬ 
cades, Days, Olympiads,.290 

2. Dry and Liquid Measures, Measures of 

Length and Weights,.291 

3. Grecian Money,.293 


MYTHOLOGY OF THE GRECIANS AND 
ROMANS,.295 







ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. 


CHAPTER I. 

GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY- 


Section L 

A General Geographical View of the Roman 
Empire, its Boundaries, and Principal Divis^ 
ions. 

The dominion of Rome, which at first ex¬ 
tended only over the city of the same name, 
afterward spread over a great portion of the 
then known world. The limits which the 
emperor Augustus set to the Roman empire, 
were the Atlantic Ocean on the w’est; the 
river Euphrates on the east; the rivers Dan¬ 
ube and Rhine on the north; the cataracts of 
the Nile, the deserts of Africa, and Mount At¬ 
las, on the south. This included the whole 
Mediterranean sea and the greater part of the 
world as known to the ancients. Some ad- 
2 



14 


ANTiaUITIES OP ROME. 


ditions were made to the empire beyond the 
northern and eastern boundaries which had 
been fixed by Augustus. 

But the country of the Romans was more 
generally limited to the whole of Italy, {Italia!) 
which was subdivided into various states or 
confederacies. The principal of these were, 
1. Liguria; 2. Gallia Cisalpina; 3. Venetia, 
including Histria and the Garni; 4. Etruria; 
5. Umbria, and Picenum; 6. The Sabini, iEqui, 
Marsi, Peligni, Vestini, Marrucini; 7. Roma; 
8. Latium; 9. Campania; 10. Samnium, and 
the Frentani; 11. Apulia, including Daunia 
and Messapia or lapygia; 12. Lucania; 13. 
Brutii. 

Italy was known by other names, as Hes¬ 
peria, Ausonia, CEnotria, and Saturnia. The 
northern part was called Gallia Cisalpina ; the 
middle, Italia Propria ; and the south, Magna 
GrsBcia, from its containing Greek colonies. 

The principal mountains were Alpes^ (the 
Alps,) and Apenninus, (the Apennines.) The 
principal rivers were the Padus or Eridanus, 
(Po,) the Tiber, and the Arnus, (Arno.) 

Sicilia, which was the largest and most 
celebrated island in the Mediterranean sea, 
was also called Sicania, and sometimes Tn- 
nacria, from its having three promontories at 
its three angles. On each of these promonto¬ 
ries was a temple. Near the east end of the 
island is the famous volcano iEtna. The 
whirlpool of Charyhdis, on the coast of Sicily 


ROME. 


15 


in the Sicilian strait, and the promontory or 
high rock of Scylla, opposite to it on the shore 
of Italy, were proverbial among the ancients 
as objects of terror to mariners, but are no 
longer considered formidable. 


Section IL 
Rome. 

The city of Rome, {Roma) the capital of the 
Roman Empire, was founded by Romulus, and 
a colony from Alba Longa, 753 years before 
Christ. It was built upon seven hills, the Pala¬ 
tine, Capitoline, Quirinal, Aventine, Ccelian, 
Viminal, and Esquiline. It was situated on 
the river Tiber, about sixteen miles from its 
mouth. The city was small and mean at first, 
occupying only the Palatine hill; but at the 
time of its greatest magnificence it covered a 
space, within its suburbs, of fifty miles. The 
gates of Rome at the time of the death of 
Romulus, were three or four; in the time of 
Augustus, thirty-seven; at which time, the 
circumference of the walls was more than 
thirteen miles. 

Rome was sometimes called the seven-hill¬ 
ed city, {septicollis.) Other hills were added as 
the city became enlarged. 

The Capitol, {Capitolium) was a celebrated 



16 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


temple and citadel on the Tarpeian rock or 
Capitoline Mount. It was planned by Tar- 
quinius Priscus, begun by Servius Tullius, and 
finished by Tarquinius Superbus. It was con¬ 
structed upon four acres of ground ; the front 
was adorned with three rows of pillars, and 
the other sides with two. The ascent to it 
from the ground was by a hundred steps. The 
magnificence and richness of this temple are 
almost incredible. All the consuls successive¬ 
ly niade donations to the Capitol; and Augus¬ 
tus bestowed upon it, at one time, two thou¬ 
sand pounds weight of gold. Its thresholds 
were made of brass, and its roof was gold. It 
was adorned with vessels and shields of solid 
silver, with golden chariots, &c. It was burnt 
and rebuilt three different times. The last 
time it was restored by Domitian, who made 
it more grand and magnificent than any of his 
predecessors. The edifice of the Capitol was 
in the form of a square. It contained three 
temples, consecrated respectively to Jupiter, 
Juno, and Minerva. The temple of Jupiter 
was in the middle; of Minerva, on the right; 
and of Juno, on the left. The Capitol was 
the highest part of the city, and strongly for¬ 
tified. 

The Pantheon, now called the Rotunda, or 
temple of all the gods, was built by Agrippa, 
in the time of Augustus, and its solid construc¬ 
tion promises it a duration for many centuries 
yet to come. Some time after its erection it 


ROME. 


17 


was struck with lightning and partly destroy¬ 
ed ; but was repaired by Adrian. The walls 
in the inside are either solid marble or incrust- 
ed. The front on the outside was covered 
with brazen plates gilded; and the top, with 
silver plates. The gate was of brass of ex¬ 
traordinary work and size. 

The temple of Apollo, built by Augustus oh 
the Palatine hill, contained a public library, 
where authors, and particularly poets, used to 
recite their compositions. 

The temple of Janus, built by Numa, had 
two brazen gates, one on each side, to be open 
in time of war, and shut in time of peace. 

The temple of Saturn was appropriated for 
the public treasury, in which all the public 
registers were preserved. 

There were also temples of Juno, Mars, 
Venus, Minerva, Neptune, &c., of Romulus, 
of Fortune, Concord, Peace, &c. 

The Odeum was a building where musicians 
rehearsed, or privately exercised themselves 
before they appeared on the stage. 

The Theatres of Pompey, of Marcellus, and 
the wooden one of Marcus Scaurus, were im¬ 
mense and magnificent structures. The last 
was capable of containing eighty thousand 
persons. 

The Colisaeum, built by Vespasian and Titus 
as an Amphitheatre, was of an oval form, and 
could contain eighty-seven thousand specta¬ 
tors. It was five hundred and fifty feet in 
2 * 


18 


ANTiaUITIES OP ROME. 


length, four hundred and eighty in breadth, 
and one hundred and fifty-eight in height. It 
was surrounded to the top by a portico sup¬ 
ported by eighty arches and divided into four 
stories. 

The Circus Maximus was first built by Tar- 
quinius Prisons, and afterwards, at different 
times, magnificently adorned. It was situated 
between the Palatine and Aventine hills, and 
was of an oblong circular form. It was seven 
hundred and thirty yards long, and about one- 
third as wide, having a circumference of a 
mile, and capable of containing one hundred 
and fifty thousand spectators, or, according to 
Pliny, two hundred and fifty thousand. 

The principal public place in the city was 
the Forum, This was a large open space of 
oblong shape, where the people held their as¬ 
semblies, and where justice was administered 
and public business transacted. It was sur¬ 
rounded in its whole extent with arched porti¬ 
coes which enclosed spacious hal] s adorned with 
other porticoes and columns. There were also 
various Force or market places where commo¬ 
dities were sold. 

The Campus Martius was a large plain with¬ 
out the city along the river Tiber, where the 
athletic exercises and sports of the Roman 
youth were practised. It was adorned with 
many noble structures and monuments. 

The Porticoes were among the most splendid 
ornaments of Rome. The Columns or pillars 


ROME. 


19 


gave also additional embellishment to the city. 
The most remarkable of these were those of 
Trajan and Antonins Pius. Trajan’s pillar 
was erected in the middle of his Forum, and 
was composed of twenty-four great blocks of 
marble, but so skilfully cemented as to seem 
but one. Its height is one hundred and twen¬ 
ty-eight feet. It is about twelve feet in diam¬ 
eter at the bottom, and ten at the top. It has 
in the inside one hundred and eighty-five wind¬ 
ing steps for ascending, and forty windows for 
the admission of light. The whole pillar is 
incrusted with marble, on which are repre¬ 
sented the warlike exploits of that emperor 
and his army. On the top was a colossal stat¬ 
ue of Trajan. 

The pillar of Antonius was erected to him 
by the senate after his death. It is one hun¬ 
dred and seventy-six feet high, the steps of its 
ascent one hundred and six, the windows fifty- 
six. The sculpture and other ornaments are 
much of the same kind with those of Trajan’s 
pillar; but the work far inferior. Both of 
these pillars are still standing, but instead of 
the statues of the emperors, the statue of St. 
Peter has been erected on Trajan’s pillar, and 
of St. Paul on that of Antonius, by order of 
Pope Sextus V. 

The Milliarium Aureum was a gilded pillar 
in the Forum where all the military ways or 
roads terminated. 

Among the many ornaments of the city 


20 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


were the triumphal Arches, {arcus triumphales,) 
erected in honor of illustrious generals, who 
had gained signal victories in war. They 
were generally very magnificent, built of the 
finest marble, of u- square figure, with a large 
arched gate in the middle and two small ones 
on each side, adorned with columns and 
statues and various figures of sculpture. 

Trophies {trophcea) were spoils taken from 
the enemy and fixed upon any thing as signs 
or monuments of victory, erected usually on 
the spot where it was gained, and consecrated 
to some divinity, with an inscription. 

The Aqueducts, of which there were about 
twenty; the Bridges, of which there were eight; 
and even the Sewers {cloacce) for draining off* 
the filth of the city into the Tiber, were all 
built at a great expense and curiously adorned. 
Some of the Baths {thermce) were built with 
astonishing magnificence. 

The Public Ways {vice) were perhaps the 
greatest of all the Roman works, being made 
with amazing labor and expense to a great 
distance from the city. They were generally 
paved with flint. The Appian way in several 
places remains entire unto this day, though 
constructed more than two thousand years ago. 

Everywhere around Rome are still to be 
seen magnificent ruins of many of the public 
buildings above noticed, Egyptian obelisks, 
blocks of oriental granite, and ancient private 
buildings. 


ROME. 


21 


The following is a part of the summary- 
catalogue of the different buildings, monu¬ 
ments, and principal curiosities of Rome, as 
contained in the notice of Aurelius Victor. 
Senate Houses of the city 4 ; Public Libraries 
28 ; Great Obelisks 6 ; Smaller Obelisks 42 ; 
Highways 29; Campi 8 ; Bridges 8 ; Forums 
18 ; Basilics 11; Public Hot Baths 12; Aque¬ 
ducts 20 ; Capitols 2; Amphitheatres 3; Co¬ 
lossal Statues 2 ; Provision Markets 2 ; Thea¬ 
tres 3 ; Schools for exercising in the Games 5 ; 
Naumachiae (places for shows of sea-fights) 5 ; 
Nymphea (buildings adorned with statues of 
the nymphs, and abounding in fountains and 
waterfalls) 11 ; Statues of brazen Horses over¬ 
laid with gilt 24; Statues of Horses made of 
ivory 94 ; Marble Arches 36 ; Gates 37 ; 
Blocks of Houses 424 ; Insulated Houses (i. e. 
houses having no other house joined to it, but 
a street on every side ; such were great men’s 
houses) 46,602 ; Baths 856. 




CHAPTER II. 


CIVIL GOVEKNMENT AND POLITICAL ECONOMY 

OF Rome. 


Section I. 

Inhabitants of Rome. 

The inhabitants of Rome were divided by 
Romulus into three Tribes, and each tribe into 
ten curicB. The number of tribes was after¬ 
wards increased by degrees to thirty-five. The 
number of curice always remained the same. 

The people were at first divided into two 
ranks, (ordines,) Patricians, (patidcii,) and Ple¬ 
beians, (plebs or populus.) Afterwards a third 
order was added, called Equites^ (knights;) 
jand slavery being introduced formed another 
class. There were therefore in all four class¬ 
es. The number of inhabitants of the city in 
its most flourishing state was about four mil¬ 
lions. 

The Patrician order was composed of those 
families whose ancestors had been members 
of the senate. They were considered noble, 
because members of their family had filled 
high offices. They enjoyed many distinguish¬ 
ed privileges from which the other ranks were 
excluded. 


INHABITANTS OP ROME. 


23 


The Knights or Equestrian order arose out 
of an institution of Romulus, who chose from 
each of the three tribes one hundred young 
men, the most distinguished for their rank and 
other accomplishments, who should serve on 
horseback, and whose assistance he might use 
for guarding his person. The number was 
afterwards increased to six hundred by an 
addition of three hundred chosen from the 
Albans. Afterwards this number was more 
than doubled; and under Servius Tullius 
there were eighteen hundred Equites. 

The Equites were chosen promiscuously 
from the Patricians and Plebeians by the Cen¬ 
sor. The age requisite was about eighteen 
years and the fortune four hundred sestertia, 
(14,351 dollars.) 

The badges or mark of distinction of the 
Equites were,—1. A horse presented them at 
the public expense; 2. A golden ring; 3. A 
narrow strip of purple sewed on the breast of 
their tunic, {angustus clavus;) and 4. A sepa¬ 
rate place at the public shows. 

The office of the Equites at first was only 
to serve in the army ; but afterwards also to 
act as judges or jurymen, and to farm the 
public revenues. 

A great degree of splendor was added to 
the Equestrian order by a procession {trans- 
vectio) which they made through the city every 
year on the 15th day of July, from the temple 
of Honor, or of Mars, without the city, to the 


24 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


Capitol; riding on horseback, with wreaths 
of olive on their heads, dressed in their Togce 
palmatcB, or trahece of a scarlet color, and bear¬ 
ing in their hands the military ornaments 
which they had received from their general 
as a reward for their valor. At this time it 
was not allowable to cite them before a court 
of justice. 

Every fifth year, when this procession was 
made, the Equites rode up to the Censor seated 
in his curule chair before the Capitol, and dis¬ 
mounting, led along their horses before him, 
and in this manner they were reviewed. If 
any Eques was corrupt in his morals, or had 
diminished his fortune, or even had not taken 
proper care of his horse, the Censor ordered 
him to sell his horse, and thus he was con¬ 
sidered to be degraded from the Equestrian 
order ; but those whom the Censor approved, 
were ordered to lead along their horses. 

The Plebeian order, which formed the mass 
of the people, was composed of the lowest 
class of freemen, or as now termed, ‘ the com¬ 
mon people.^ Those who lived in the country 
were called ‘ Plebs rustica,* and were the more 
respectable ; those who resided in the city, as 
merchants, mechanics, &c., were called * Plebs 
urbana* Many of these latter followed no 
trade, but were supported by the public and 
private largesses. There were leading men 
among them, kept in pay by the seditious ma¬ 
gistrates, who would stimulate them to the 


INHABITANTS OF ROME. 


25 


most daring outrages. The turbulence of the 
common people of Rome—the natural effect 
of idleness and unbounded licentiousness—is 
justly reckoned among the chief causes of the 
ruin of the republic. Trade and manufactures 
being considered as servile employments, they 
had no encouragement to industry; and the 
numerous spectacles which were exhibited, 
particularly the shows of gladiators, served 
but to increase their natural ferocity. Hence 
they were always ready to join in any con¬ 
spiracy against the state. 

That the Patricians and Plebeians might be 
connected together by the strictest bonds, 
Romulus ordained that every Plebeian should 
choose from the Patricians any one he pleased 
as his Patron or protector, whose Client he was 
called. The Patron was bound to protect his 
Client, to relieve him in distress, to appear for 
him in court, to expound the law to him, and 
to assist him on all necessary occasions. On 
the other hand, the Client was obliged to be 
dutiful and obedient to his Patron, to promote 
his honor, and to serve him with his fortune, 
or even with his life, if required. There was 
a mutual bond between the Patron and the 
Client that neither should bring an accusation 
or bear witness against the other, or give sen¬ 
tence in court against him or in favor of his 
enemies. The duties of the Patron towards 
his Client were more sacred than those towards 
his own kindred. Whoever trespassed against 
3 


26 


ANTiaurriES of rome. 


his clients was guilty of treason, and might 
be slain by any one with impunity. 

In after times, even cities and whole nations 
placed themselves under the protection of 
illustrious Roman families. 

Those whose ancestors or who themselves 
had borne any Curule magistracy; that is, 
had been Consul, Praetor, Censor, or Curule 
^dile, were called nobiles, and had the right 
of making waxen images of themselves, which 
were kept with great care by their posterity in 
the courts of their houses, enclosed in wooden 
cases, and brought out only on solemn occa¬ 
sions and at funerals of the family, when they 
were carried before them. 

Men became slaves among the Romans by 
being taken in war, by way of punishment, or 
by being born in a state of servitude. Those 
enemies who voluntarily laid down their arms 
and surrendered themselves, retained their 
rights of freedom, and were called ‘ dedititiV 
Those taken in the field or in the storming of 
cities were sold at auction (‘ sub corona! be¬ 
cause they wore a crown when sold) or f sub 
hasta! because a spear was set up where the 
auctioneer stood.) They were called servi or 
mancipia. There was a constant market for 
slaves at Rome. Those who dealt in this trade 
(mangones, or venalitii) brought them from vari¬ 
ous countries. The seller was bound to pro¬ 
mise for the soundness of his slaves, and not 
to conceal their faults. Hence they were 


INHABITANTS OP ROME. 


27 


generally exposed for sale marked ; and they 
carried a scroll hanging at their necks, on 
which their good and bad qualities were spe¬ 
cified. If the seller gave a false account he 
was bound to make up the loss, or to take 
back the slave. 

Free-born citizens could not sell themselves 
for slaves. Fathers might sell their children 
for slaves, but these did not on that account 
entirely lose the right of citizens ; for when 
freed from their slavery, they were held as 
Ingenuij not Libertini* The same was the 
case with insolvent debtors who were given 
up as slaves to their creditors. Criminals, 
who were reduced to slavery by way of pun¬ 
ishment, were first deprived of citizenship and 
liberty, and were called slaves of punishment, 
(servi pop/nce.) 

The children of any female slave became 
the slaves of her master. There was no re¬ 
gular marriage among slaves, but their con¬ 
nection was termed contuhernium. The whole 
company of slaves in one house was called 
familia, and the proprietor, dominus. 

Slaves not only did all domestic services, 
but were likewise employed in various trades 
and manufactures. Such as had a genius for 
it, were sometimes instructed in literature and 
the liberal arts. Some of these were sold at 
a great price. 

Slaves were promoted according to their 
*■ See Sect. II. 


28 


ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. 


behavior, as from being a drudge or mean 
slave in town, to be an overseer in the coun¬ 
try [milieus.^ 

Among the Romans, masters had an absolute 
power over their slaves. They might scourge 
or put them to death at pleasure. This right 
was exercised with so great cruelty that laws 
were made at diiferent times to restrain it. 
The lash was the common punishment, but for 
some crimes they were branded in the fore¬ 
head; and sometimes compelled to carry a 
piece of wood round their necks, wherever 
they went; which was called furca, and the 
slave who carried it, furcifur. Slaves by way 
of punishment were often shut up in a work- 
house, {ergastulum^ where they were obliged 
to turn a mill for grinding corn. When slaves 
were beaten, they were suspended with a 
weight tied to their feet, that they might not 
move them. When punished capitally, they 
were commonly crucified ; but this kind of 
punishment was prohibited under the Christian 
emperor Constantine. 

If the master of a family was slain at his 
own house, and the murderer not discovered, 
all his domestic slaves were liable to be put 
to death. Slaves were not esteemed as per¬ 
sons, but as things ; and might be transferred 
from one owner to another, like any other ef¬ 
fects. They could not appear as witnesses in 
a court of justice, nor make a will, nor inherit 
any thing, nor serve as soldiers, unless first 


INHABITANTS OF ROME. 


29 


made free. They had a certain allowance 
granted them for their sustenance, (dimensium,) 
commonly four or five pecks of grain a month, 
and five denarii* in money. What they spared 
of this, or procured by any other means, with 
their master’s consent, was called their pecu- 
lium. This money they could put out at in¬ 
terest, or purchase with it a slave for them¬ 
selves, from whose labors they might make 
profit. In this way they often purchased the?r 
freedom. 

At certain times slaves were allowed the 
greatest freedom, as at the feast of Saturn in 
the month of December, when they were 
served at table by their masters. The number 
of slaves in Rome and throughout Italy was 
very great. Some rich individuals are said to 
have had several thousands. 

Slaves were anciently freed in three ways,— 
1. Per Censum, when a slave by his master’s 
knowledge or order had his name inserted in 
the Censor’s roll.—2. Per vindictam, when a 
master took his slave to the Praetor or Consul 
and said, “ I desire that this man be free ac¬ 
cording to the custom of the Romans and 
the officer, if he approved, putting a rod 
(vindicta) on the head of the slave, pronounced, 
“ I say that this man is free after the manner 
of the Romans.” Then the lictor,t or the 

* A denarius is about 14 or 15 cents. 

t The lictors were persons taken from the lowest classes 
to go before magistrates and attend to their orders. 

3 * 


30 


ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. 


master, turning him round in a circle and giv¬ 
ing him a blow on the cheek, let him go, sig¬ 
nifying that leave was granted him to go 
where he pleased.-^3. Per testamentum, when 
a master gave his slaves their liberty by his 
will. 

Anciently the condition of all freed slaves 
was the same; they obtained the freedom of 
the city with their liberty. But in later times 
laws were made to check the license of manu¬ 
mitting slaves. When freed, they were pre¬ 
sented with a white robe and a ring by their 
master. They then assumed a prcBnomen and 
prefixed the name of their patron to their own. 
8o foreigners, when admitted to the freedom 
of the city, assumed the name of that person 
by whose favor they had obtained it. If a 
freedman died intestate without heirs, the pa¬ 
tron succeeded to his effects. 

Slaves when made free were called liherti 
and liberlini;—liherti in relation to their 
masters; and lihertini in relation to free-born 
citizens. 


Section II. 

Names of the Romans, Gentes, Familice, ^c. 

The Romans were divided into various clans, 
{gentes,) and each clan or gens into several 



NAMES OF THE ROMANS, GENTES, FAMILI^. 31 

families, (familicB,) Those of the same gens 
were called gentiles, and those of the same 
family, agnati, to distinguish them from cognati, 
relations only by the mother’s side. Anciently 
the Patricians only were said to have a gens. 
But when the Plebeians obtained the right of 
intermarriage they also received the rights of 
gentes. 

To mark the different gentes and familice, 
and to distinguish individuals of the same 
family, the Romans had commonly three 
names; the prcenomen, nomen, and cognomen. 
The prcenomen was put first, and marked the 
individual. It was commonly written with 
one letter, as A. for Aulus; C. for Cains; 
sometimes with two letters, as Ap. for Appius; 
Cn. for Cneius. The nomen was put after the 
prcBtiomen and marked the gens, and commonly 
ended in ius, as Cornelius, Julius. The cog¬ 
nomen was put last and marked the familia, as 
Cicero, Caesar. Sometimes there was a fourth 
name, called the agnomen, added for some illus¬ 
trious action or remarkable event. Thus Scipio 
was named Africanus, from the conquest of 
Carthage and Africa; and on a similar ac¬ 
count his brother Lucius was named Asiaticus, 
These three names were not always used, 
commonly but two, and sometimes only one, 
the cognomen or surname. But in speaking to 
any one, the prcenomen was generally used as 
being peculiar to citizens, for slaves had no 
prcenomen. 


32 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


The surnames were derived from various 
circumstances, as from some quality of the 
mind, as Cato from wisdom, {catus^ wise,) or 
habit of the body, &c., as Crassus, Macer. 

The prcenomen used to be given to boys on 
the ninth day, which was called dies lustricus, 
‘ the day of purification,^ when certain re¬ 
ligious ceremonies were performed. The eldest 
son of the family usually received the prceno- 
men of the father: the rest were named from 
their uncles or other relations. When there 
was only one daughter in the family she was 
called from the name of the gens ; thus, Tullia, 
the daughter of Cicero ; Julia, the daughter of 
Caesar; and they retained the same name after 
they were married. When there were two 
daughters the elder was called Major and the 
other Minor, as Cornelia Major, Cornelia Mi¬ 
nor. If there were more than two they were 
distinguished by their number; thus, Prima, 
Secunda, &c., or more genteelly, Terlilla, Quar~ 
tilla, &c. 

Those children were called liheri, ‘ free,’ 
who had the liberty of doing what they pleased. 
Those born of parents who had been always 
free were called ingenui. Slaves made free 
were called liberti, in relation to their masters, 
and libertini, in relation to free-born citizens.* 
♦ See page 27. 


MAGISTRATES 


33 


Section III. 

Magistrates. 

The Roman magistrates were variously di¬ 
vided into ordinary and extraordinary, greater 
and less, curule and not curule, 'patrician and 
plebeian, city and provincial magistrates. 

The magistratus ordinarii were those who 
were created at stated times, and were con¬ 
stantly in the republic ; the extraordinarii not 
so. The magistratus majores were the con¬ 
suls, praetors, and censors of the ordinary kind, 
and the dictator, master of the horse, the in- 
terrex, the prefect of the city, &:c., of the ex¬ 
traordinary kind. The magistratus minores 
were the tribunes of the people, the aediles 
and quaestors. The magistratus curules were 
those who had the right of using the sella cu- 
rulis or ‘ chair of state.’ These were the dic¬ 
tator, the consuls, praetors, censors, and curule 
acdiles. All the rest who had not that right 
were called non curules. This sella curulis was 
made of ivory, or adorned with it. The magis¬ 
trates sat on it in their tribunal on all solemn 
occasions. 

In the beginning of the republic the magis¬ 
trates were chosen only from the Patricians, 
but afterwards also from the Plebeians, except 
the interrex alone. 

There was a certain age fixed for enjoying 


34 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


the different offices, but it is not fully ascer¬ 
tained what that age was, in all cases. It is 
certain, however, that the praetorship used to 
be enjoyed two years after the aedileship, and 
that the consulship could not be held by any 
person before he had arrived at the age of 
forty-three. From Cicero we may infer that 
the years appointed for the different offices 
were, for the quaestorship, thirty-one; for the 
praatorship, forty ; and for the consulship, forty- 
three. 

All magistrates were obliged, within five 
days after entering upon the duties of their 
office, to swear that they would observe the 
laws; and after the expiration of their office 
they might be brought to trial if they had done 
any thing amiss. 

Rome was at first governed by kings, (reges,) 
not of absolute power, nor hereditary, but 
limited and elective. They had no legislative 
authority, and could neither make war nor 
peace without the concurrence of the senate 
and people. The kings were also priests, and 
had the chief direction of sacred things. 
Their badges were the trabea, a white robe 
adorned with stripes of purple; or the toga 
prcutexta, a white robe fringed with purple : 
a golden crown^ an ivory sceptre, the sella curulis, 
and twelve lictors with the fasces and secures, 
i. e. carrying each of them a bundle of rods 
with an axe placed in the middle of them. 

When there was a vacancy in the throne, 


MAGISTRATES. 


35 


{interregnum,) the senators shared the govern¬ 
ment and appointed one of their number to 
have the chief direction of atfairs, with the 
title of interrex, for the space of five days; 
and after him another and another in succes¬ 
sion till a king was elected. Afterwards, 
under the republic, an interrex was created to 
hold the elections, when there were no consuls 
or dictator; which happened either by their 
sudden death or when the tribunes of the peo¬ 
ple hindered the election by their intervention. 

The regal government subsisted at Rome 
for two hundred and forty-three years under 
seven kings: Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tul- 
lus Hostilius, Ancus Martins, Tarquinius Pris- 
cus, Servius Tullius, and L. Tarquinius, sur- 
named Superbus from his behavior: all of whom 
except the last so reigned that they are justly 
thought to have laid the foundations of the 
Roman greatness. Tarquin being universally 
detested for his tyranny and cruelty, was ex¬ 
pelled the city on account of the violence of¬ 
fered by his son Sextus to Lucretia, a noble 
lady, the wife of Collatinus. This revolution 
was effected by means of L. Junius Brutus. 
The haughtiness and cruelty of Tarquin in¬ 
spired the Romans with the greatest aversion 
to regal government, which they retained ever 
afterwards. 

After the expulsion of the kings, A. U.* 244, 
two supreme magistrates were annually crea- 

* A. U., that is, anno urbis, the year of the city. 


36 


ANTIQUITIES OP ROME. 


ted with equal authority, who were called 
Consules^ (consuls.) Their badges were the 
same as those of the kings except the crown, 
namely, the toga prcBtexta, sella curulis, scipio 
ehurneus, (the ivory sceptre,) and twelve lictors 
with the fasces and secures. They had nearly 
the same power as the kings, but this was di¬ 
minished by the creation of the tribunes of 
the people, and still more afterwards by the 
emperors. 

The consuls were at the head of the whole 
republic. All other magistrates were subject 
to them except the tribunes of the people. 
They assembled the people and the senate, laid 
before them what they pleased, and executed 
their decrees. The laws which they proposed 
and had passed, were commonly called by 
their names. They received all letters from 
the governors of provinces, from foreign kings 
and states, and gave audience to ambassadors. 
The year was named after them. He who 
had the most suffrages was called consul prior, 
and his name was marked first in the calen¬ 
dar. He also presided at the election of magis¬ 
trates for the next year. 

Every one went out of the way, uncovered 
his head, dismounted from horseback, or rose 
up to the consuls as they passed by. 

In time of war, the consuls possessed su¬ 
preme command. They levied soldiers and 
provided for them, and appointed most of the 
military ofiicers. 


MAGISTRATES. 


37 


In dangerous conjunctures the consuls were 
armed with absolute power by the solemn de¬ 
cree of the senate that “ they (the consuls) 
should see that the republic receives no harm^ 
The consuls were usually elected about the 
end of July or the beginning of August. From 
the time of their election to the first of Janu¬ 
ary, when they entered upon their office, they 
were called Consules designati, ‘ consuls elect.’ 
This interval was made so long that they 
might have time to become acquainted with 
what pertained to their office; and that in¬ 
quiry might be made whether they had gained 
their election by bribery. If they were con¬ 
victed of that crime upon trial, they were de¬ 
prived of consulship, fined, and declared ineli¬ 
gible to any office. 

On the first day of January the senate and 
people waited on the new consuls at their 
houses, whence being conducted with great 
pomp [processus consularis) to the capitol, they 
offered up their vows, and sacrificed, each of 
them, an ox to Jupiter, and then began their 
office by holding the senate. 

Before any one could be made consul it was 
requisite to have gone through the inferior of¬ 
fices of qucestor, cedile^ and praetor. 

Those who had been consuls were called 
consularesj ‘ men of consular dignity.’ 

The name of Praetor was anciently common 
to all the magistrates. But when the consuls, 
being engaged in almost continual wars, could 
4 


38 


ANTiaUITIES OF KOME. 


not attend to the administration of justice, a 
magistrate was created for that purpose, to 
whom the name of Prcetor was therefore ap¬ 
propriated. The praetor was next in dignity 
to the consuls, and was created at the Comitia 
centuriata with the same auspices as the con¬ 
suls, whence he was called their colleague. 
When, on account of the number of foreigners 
who flocked to Rome, one praetor was not suf¬ 
ficient, another praetor was added to adminis¬ 
ter justice to them, or between citizens and 
them. He was called prcetor peregrinus. The 
two praetors, after their election, decided by 
lot which of the two jurisdictions each should 
exercise. The praetor who administered jus¬ 
tice only between citizens (prcetor urhanus) 
was considered more honorable. In the ab¬ 
sence of the consuls he supplied their place. 
He presided in the assemblies of the people, 
and might on some occasions convene the sen¬ 
ate. On account of his important office, he 
was not allowed to be absent from the city 
above ten days. 

The power of the praetor in the administra¬ 
tion of justice, was expressed in these three 
words, do^ dico, addico. By do, he gave the 
form of a writ for trying and redressing a par¬ 
ticular wrong complained of, and appointed 
judges or a jury to judge in the cause ; by dico^ 
he pronounced sentence ; and by addico, he ad¬ 
judged the goods of the debtor to the creditor. 
The days on which the praetor administered 


MAGISTRATES. 


39 


justice were called dies fasti, and those days 
on which it was unlawful to administer jus¬ 
tice, dies n‘fasti. 

When the prcetor urhanus entered upon his 
office, after having sworn to the observance of 
the laws, he published an edict (edictum) or 
system of rules, according to which he was to 
administer justice for that year. The sum¬ 
moning of any one to appear in court was also 
called edictum. Other magistrates, however, 
published their edicts, as well as the praetor. 

The praetor was attended by two lictors in 
the city who went before him with the fasces, 
and by six lictors without the city. He wore 
the toga preetexta, which he assumed as the 
consuls did on the first day of his office, after 
having offered up vows in the capitol. When 
he heard causes, he sat in the Forum or Corni- 
tium on a tribunal, which was a kind of stage 
or scaffold, in which was placed the sella cu- 
rulis of the praetor; and a sword and spear 
(gladius et hasta) were set upright before him. 
The judices or jury sat on some lower seats, as 
also did the witnesses, advocates, &c. The 
clerks {scribes) recorded his proceeding; and 
the criers {accensi) summoned persons, and 
proclaimed the hour at certain times of the 
day. 

The number of praetors increased as the 
empire extended more widely, but two only of 
the number remained in the city. The rest 
were sent to the provinces. 


40 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


The praetors administered justice only in pri¬ 
vate or less causes, but in public or important 
causes, the people either judged themselves, 
or appointed one or more persons to preside 
at the trial, who were called Qucesitores, and 
whose authority lasted only till the trial was 
over. 

The Censores were two magistrates first 
created A. U. 312, for taking an account of the 
number of the people, and the value of their 
fortunes, and especially to inspect the morals 
of the citizens. They were elected every five 
years, but their power continued only a year 
and a half. They had the same badges of hon¬ 
or as the consuls, except the lictors. They 
were usually chosen from the most respecta¬ 
ble persons of consular dignity. Their power 
in time became very great. The title of Cen¬ 
sor was esteemed more honorable even than 
that of consul, and it was reckoned the chief 
ornament of nobility to be sprung from a cen- 
sorian family. 

The censors took the census in the Campus 
Martius. Seated in their curule chairs, and 
attended by their clerks and other officers, they 
ordered the citizens divided into their classes 
and centuries, and also into their tribes, to be 
called before them by a herald, and to give an 
account of their fortunes, family, &c. At the 
same time they reviewed the senate and eques¬ 
trian order, supplied the vacant places in both, 
and inflicted various marks of disgrace on 


MAGISTRATES. 


41 


those who deserved it, such as excluding a 
senator from the senate-house ; depriving a 
knight of his public horse ; and removing a 
citraen from a more honorable to a less honor¬ 
able tribe, or depriving him of the privileges 
of a Roman citizen, except liberty. 

The censors divided the citizens into classes 
and centuries, according to their fortunes. 
They added new tribes to the old when it was 
deemed expedient. They also had charge of 
the public works, paving the streets, making 
roads, bridges, aqueducts, keeping the tem¬ 
ples and public edifices in repair, letting out 
the public lands and taxes, and taking care 
that private persons should not occup} what 
belonged to the public. 

The power of the censors did not extend to 
public crimes, or to such things as came under 
the cognizance of the civil magistrate and 
were punishable by law; but only to matters 
of a private nature, and of less importance, as 
if any one did not cultivate his ground proper¬ 
ly, if an eques did not take proper care of his 
horse, if one lived too long unmarried, or con¬ 
tracted debt without cause, if one had not be¬ 
haved with sufficient bravery in war, or was 
of dissolute morals, and, above all, if a person 
had violated his oath. The accused were usu¬ 
ally permitted to make their defence. The 
sentence of the censors (animadversio censoria) 
affected only the rank and character of per¬ 
sons, and was called ignominia, but this was 


42 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


not fixed and unalterable, for the next cen¬ 
sors, or the verdict of a jury, or the suffrages 
of the people, might remove it. 

No one could be elected a second time to 
the office of censor; and if one of the censors 
died, his surviving colleague was obliged to 
resign his office. 

The review (census) of the people by the 
censors, took place every five years. After it 
was finished, an expiatory sacrifice was made 
of a sow, a sheep, and a bull, which were 
carried round the whole assembly and then 
slain, and thus the people were said to be puri¬ 
fied, (lustrati^ and hence the word lustrum 
(purification) came to denote a period of five 
years. 

The plebeians being oppressed by the patri¬ 
cians on account of debt, made a secession to 
a mountain, afterwards called Mans Sacer, 
three miles from Rome, A. U. 260; nor could 
they be prevailed on to return, till they ob¬ 
tained from the patricians a remission of debts 
for those who were insolvent, and liberty to 
such as had been given up to their creditors ; 
and likewise that the plebeians should have 
proper magistrates of their own to protect 
their rights, whose persons should be sacred 
and inviolable. These magistrates were called 
Trihuni. At first five were created, but after¬ 
wards ten. They were chosen indiscriminately 
from the plebeians, and no patrician could be 
made tribune unless first adopted into a pie- 


MAGISTRATES. 


43 


beian family. They had no external mark of 
dignity except a kind of beadle {viator) who 
went before them. 

The power of the tribunes was at first very 
limited. Jt consisted in hindering, not in act¬ 
ing ; and was expressed by the word veto, “I 
forbid it.” But in process of time they in¬ 
creased their influence to such a degree, that 
under the pretext of defending the rights of 
the people, they did almost whatever they 
pleased. They hindered the collection of 
tribute, the enlisting of soldiers, and the crea¬ 
tion of magistrates ; which latter they did at 
one time for five years. They could put a 
negative upon all the decrees of the senate 
and ordinances of the people, and by a single 
veto could arrest the proceedings of all magis¬ 
trates. If any one injured a tribune in word 
or in deed, he was held accursed, and his 
property was confiscated. Under the sanction 
of this law they carried their power to an ex¬ 
travagant height. The only effectual method 
of resisting their power, was to procure one 
of their number to put a negative on the pro¬ 
ceedings of the rest; but he who did it might 
afteiAvards be brought by his colleagues to trial 
before the people. 

The ^diles were named from their care of 
the public buildings, {cedes.) They were either 
plebeian or curule. Two cediles pleheii were 
first created at the same time with the tribunes 
of the people, to be their assistants, and to de- 


44 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


termine certain less causes which the tribunes 
committed to them. Two csdiles curules were 
created from the patricians to perform certain 
public games. These wore the toga prcBtexta, 
had the right of images, and a more honorable 
place of giving their opinion in the senate. 
Their office was to take care of the city, its 
public buildings, temples, theatres, baths, por¬ 
ticoes, aqueducts, roads, &:c., also of private 
buildings, lest they should become ruinous, 
and deform the cit}^ or occasion danger to 
passengers. They likewise took care of pro¬ 
visions, markets, taverns, &c.; they inspected 
things which were exposed to sale in the Fo¬ 
rum ; and if they were not good, they caused 
them to be thrown into the Tiber ; they broke 
unjust weights and measures, and examined 
plays that were to be brought upon the stage. 
The plebeian sediles kept the decrees of the 
senate and the ordinances of the people in 
the temple of Ceres, and afterwards in the 
treasury. 

The Quoislores were appointed by the people 
to take charge of the public revenues, and 
were at first two in number, but were after¬ 
wards increased to eight; but two only re¬ 
mained at Rome, called qucestores urhani. 
These two city quaestors had the care of the 
treasury, which was kept in the temple of 
Saturn; they received and expended the public 
money, exacted fines, kept the military stand¬ 
ards, entertained foreign ambassadors, and 


MAGISTRATES. 


45 


took charge of the funerals of those who were 
buried at the public expense. 

The office of the provincial quaestors {quces- 
tores provinciales) was to attend the consuls or 
praetors into their provinces, to take care that 
provisions and pay were furnished to the army, 
to keep the money deposited by the soldiers, 
to exact the taxes and tribute of the empire, 
to sell the spoils taken in war, and to return 
an account of every thing to the treasury. 

The quaestors were not attended by lictors 
nor viatores. 

The quaestorship was the first step of prefer¬ 
ment to the higher offices, and of admission in 
the senate. 


Section IV. 

Other Magistrates, 

The Dictator was a magistrate with abso¬ 
lute power, appointed on extraordinary occa¬ 
sions, or in cases of imminent danger from 
pestilence, sedition, or foreign enemies. His 
power was supreme, both in peace and war. 
He could raise and disband armies; he could 
determine on the life and fortunes of citizens 
without consulting the people or senate. From 
his decision there was no appeal. When he 
was created, all other magistrates, except the 



46 


ANTiaUITlES OF ROME. 


tribunes of the people, resigned their authority. 
His office continued only for six months; but 
he usually resigned his command whenever he 
had effected the business for which he had 
been created. He was not permitted to go 
out of Italy, nor to ride on horseback without 
asking permission of the people. But the prin¬ 
cipal check against a dictator’s abuse of power 
was, that he might be called to an account 
for his conduct when he resigned his office. 

The dictator was not created by the suffra¬ 
ges of the people as the other magistrates: 
but one of the consuls, by order of the senate, 
named as dictator whatever person of consu¬ 
lar dignity he thought proper after having 
taken the auspices, usually in the dead of the 
night. 

When a dictator was created he immedi¬ 
ately nominated a master of horse, {Magister 
Equitum) usually from those of consular or 
praetorian rank, whose office was to command 
the cavalry, and to execute the orders of the 
dictator. 

The Decemviri were ten men created A. U. 
303, from the patricians, with supreme power 
to draw up a code of laws, all the other 
magistrates having first resigned their offices. 
They administered justice to the people each 
every tenth day, and behaved at first with 
great moderation. They proposed ten tables 
of laws, which were ratified by the people at 
the comitia centuriata. As two other tables 


MAGISTRATES. 


47 


seemed to be wanting, decemvirs were again 
created, for another year, to make them. But 
these new magistrates acting tyrannically, and 
wishing to retain their command beyond the 
legal time, were at last forced to resign, chiefly 
on account of the base passion of one of the 
number, Appius Claudius, for Virginia, a virgin 
of plebeian rank, who was slain by her father 
to prevent her falling into the decemvir’s hands. 
The decemvirs all perished either in prison or 
in banishment. 

The Trihuni Militum, or military tribunes, 
had consular power in public affairs, and 
mediated between the patricians and plebe¬ 
ians at a time when they could not agree about 
an election of consuls. 

The provinces of the people were governed 
by Pro-consuls and Pro-pra3tors, to whom were 
joined quaestors and lieutenants, (legati.) The 
office of a legatus was very honorable. 

After the death of Julius Caesar, A. U. 710, 
Octavius, (who was afterwards called Augus¬ 
tus,) Antony, and Lepidus, shared between 
them the provinces of the republic, and excr¬ 
eted absolute power under the title of Tri~ 
umviri. After this, Augustus, A. U. 723, be¬ 
came sole master of the Roman empire, and 
ruled it under the title of Prince or Emperor, 
{Frinceps or Imperator.) The title of Impera- 
tor (by which the chief magistrate was called) 
continued till the downfall of the empire. 
The emperors made numerous alterations and 


48 


ANTiaUITIES OF HOME. 


appointments in the offices, but nearly all the 
authority of different magistrates was concen¬ 
trated in the emperor. Among the new offices 
instituted by the emperors, were the Prcefecti 
and Procuratores. The prcsfectus urhi was the 
governor of the city; the prcefectus prcBtorio 
was the commander of the emperor’s body¬ 
guards ; th.Q prcBfectus annonce had the charge 
of procuring corn in times of scarcity; the 
prcBfectus militaris cerarii had charge of the 
public fund ; the prcefectus classis was the ad¬ 
miral of the fleet; -the prcefectus vigilum was 
the officer who commanded the soldiers that 
were appointed to watch the city. 

The Procurator in each province managed 
the affairs of the revenue. 


Section V. 

Public Assemblies* 

An assembly of the whole Roman people to 
give their vote about any subject was called 
comitia. When a part of the people only was 
assembled it was usually called consilium. In 
the Comitia, every thing which came under 
the power of the people was transacted; ma¬ 
gistrates were elected, and laws passed, par¬ 
ticularly concerning the declaration of war 
and the concluding of peace. Persons guilty 



PUBLIC ASSEMBLIES. 


49 


of certain crimes were also tried in the comi- 
tia. The comitia were always summoned by 
some magistrate who presided in them. 

There were three kinds of Comitia^ the Cu~ 
riata, instituted by Romulus ; the Centuriata, 
instituted by Servius Tullius ; and the Trihuta, 
introduced by the tribunes of the people. The 
two former could not be held without taking 
the auspices, nor without the authority of the 
senate; but the Tributa might. The comitia 
for creating magistrates were usually held in 
the Campus Martins; but for making laws 
and for holding trials, sometimes in the forum, 
and sometimes in the capitol. 

In the comitia, as well as in the senate, no¬ 
thing could be done before the rising nor after 
the setting of the sun. The days on which 
the comitia could be held were called dies com- 
itiales. 

In the Comitia Curiata, the people gave 
their votes, divided into thirty curicB; and 
what a majority of them (that is, sixteen) 
determined, was said to be the order of the 
people. At first there were no other comitia 
but the curiata, and therefore every thing of 
importance was determined by them. The 
kings and afterwards the consuls presided, 
and directed every thing which came before 
them. The part of the forum where they as¬ 
sembled was called the Comitium, Those 
citizens only had a right to vote at the comitia 
curiata who lived in the city and were includ- 
5 


50 


ANTiaUITIES OP ROME. 


ed in some curia or parish. A law made by 
the people divided into curice was called lex 
cur'iata. After the institution of the comitia 
centuriata and tributa, the comitia curiata were 
more rarely assembled, and that only for pass¬ 
ing certain laws, the creation of the Curies 
Maximus, (the president of the curies,) and for 
conferring military command on magistrates. 

The principal comitia were the centuriata, 
in which the people divided into the centuries 
of their classes gave their votes, and what a 
majority of centuries decreed was considered 
as finally determined. These comitia were 
held according to the census instituted by Ser- 
vius Tullius. This census was a numbering of 
the people with a valuation of their fortunes. 
All the Roman citizens, both in town and 
country, upon oath made an estimate of their 
fortunes, and publicly declared that estimate 
to the Censor ; they told also the names of 
their wives and children, the number of their 
slaves and freedmen, their own age and that 
of their children, and if any gave a false ac¬ 
count their goods were confiscated, and them¬ 
selves seourged and sold for slaves. Then 
aecording to the valuation of their estates he 
divided all the citizens into six classes, and 
each class into a certain number of centuries. 
At first a century contained a hundred, but 
not so afterwards. 

The first class consisted of those whose es¬ 
tates in lands and effects were worth at least 


PUBLIC ASSEMBLIES. 


51 


one hundred thousand asses or pounds of brass, 
which is usually reckoned equal to $1,430; 
but if we suppose each pound of brass to con¬ 
tain twenty-four asses, as was the case after¬ 
wards, it will amount $34,320. This class 
was subdivided into eighty centuries. To 
these were added eighteen centuries of equites; 
in all, ninety-eight centuries. 

The second class consisted of twenty cen¬ 
turies, whose estates were worth at least 
seventy-five thousand asses. To these were 
added two centuries of artificers, carpenters, 
smiths, &c., to manage the engines of war. 

The third class was also divided into twenty 
centuries; their estate was worth fifty thou¬ 
sand asses. 

The fourth class contained likewise twenty 
centuries, and their estate was twenty-five 
thousand asses. 

The fifth class was divided into thirty cen¬ 
turies ; their estate was eleven thousand asses. 

The sixth class comprehended all those who 
either had no estates or were not worth so 
much as those of the fifth class. Their num¬ 
ber was greater than that of any of the other 
classes, yet they were reckoned as but one 
century. 

Thus the whole number of centuries in all 
the classes was one hundred and ninety-one. 
By this arrangement the chief power was 
vested in the richest citizens who composed 
the first class, which, though least in numbers, 


52 


ANTiaUJTIES OF ROME. 


consisted of more centuries than all the rest 
taken together; but these likewise bore the 
expenditures in peace and war in proportion. 

Those of the first class were called classici ; 
all the rest were said to be infra classem, 
(below the class.) Hence classici auctores, 
(classical authors,) for the most approved 
authors. 

The comitia centuriata were held for creating 
magistrates, enacting laws, and for trials. 
They were assembled by an edict, and were 
summoned at least seventeen days before the 
time of meeting, that the people might have 
time to deliberate on the business to be trans¬ 
acted. 

Those who sought any office were called 
candidate from a white robe {toga Candida) 
which they wore. They were obliged to be 
present at the time of the election, and to 
declare themselves before the comitia were 
summoned. For a long time before the elec¬ 
tion they endeavored to gain the favor of the 
people by every popular art, such as shaking 
hands with those they met, visiting them at 
their houses, &c. 

The auspices w^ere taken on the day of the 
comitia, and if they were unfavorable the comi- 
tia was adjourned for another day. The cornu 
tia were also stopped if any person during the 
time of the meeting was seized with epilepsy, 
or if a tribune of the people interceded with 
his mto, or if a tempest arose; but in this last 


PUBLIC ASSEMBLIES. 


53 


case the election of the magistrates, who were 
already created, was not rendered invalid. 

When there was no obstruction to the comi- 
tia, on the day appointed the people met in the 
Campus Martms. The magistrates who pre¬ 
sided repeated a form of prayer, and then in a 
speech informed the people what business was 
to be transacted. If magistrates were to be 
elected, the names of the candidates were 
read aloud. If a law was to be passed, it was 
recited by a herald, and persons were allowed 
to speak for or against it. A similar form 
was observed at trials. 

The centuria prcBrogativa was that century 
which obtained by ballot the privilege of vot¬ 
ing first. The centuries being called by a 
herald in their order, went each of them into 
an enclosure, {septum or ovile.) In going to 
this they had to cross over a little bridge 
where they received from certain officers 
(called diribitores) ballots, on which, if magis¬ 
trates were to be created, were inscribed the 
names of the candidates, or rather, their in¬ 
itial letters. Of these tablets, every one threw 
which he pleased into a chest. When a cen¬ 
tury had all voted, the votes were counted 
and another century was called upon to come 
and vote. If the votes of a century were 
equal, it was reckoned as nothing, except in 
trials, in which the century which did not con¬ 
demn was supposed to acquit. 

1/ a law was to be passed or any thing or- 

5* 

; 


54 


ANTiaUITIES OP ROME. 


dered, ,they received two tablets or ballots; 
on one were the letters U. R., i. e. Uti Rogas, 
(as you propose;) and on the other A, for 
Antique, (ancient,) I like the old law, or am 
opposed to the new law. When a law was 
passed, it was engraved on brass, and carried 
to the treasury. It was also fixed up in some 
public place where it might be easily read. 

In the Comitia Trihuta the people voted, 
divided into tribes according to their regions 
or wards. They were held to create the in¬ 
ferior city magistrates, as the sediles, tribunes 
of the people, quaestors, &c.; all the magis¬ 
trates of the provinces, pro-consuls, pro-prae¬ 
tors, &c., the inferior priests ; to make laws, 
(which were called plebiscita,) and to hold 
trials where fines were to be imposed. Capital 
trials were held only at the comitia centuriata. 
At the Comitia trihuta the votes of all the citi¬ 
zens were of equal force, and therefore the 
patricians but seldom attended them. 


Section VI. 

The Senate, 

The Senate {senatus) was instituted by Rom¬ 
ulus to be the perpetual council of the republic. 
At first it consisted of one hundred members, 
which were chosen from the Patricians. The 



THE SENATE. 


55 


senators were called patres, (fathers,) either on 
account of their age, or their paternal care of 
the state ; and their descendants were called 
patricii. After the Sabines were taken into 
the city, another hundred was chosen from 
them by the suffrages of the curicB. Tarqui- 
nius Priscus, the fifth king of Rome, added one 
hundred more, who were GixWedi paires minorum 
Pentium. Those who had been created by 
Romulus were called patres majorum gentium. 
In the time of Julius Caesar the number of 
senators was increased to nine hundred, and 
afterwards to one thousand, but Augustus re¬ 
duced the number to six hundred. Such as 
were chosen into the senate by Brutus, after 
the expulsion of Tarquin the Proud, to supply 
the place of those whom that king had slain, 
were called Conscripti, i. e. persons written or 
enrolled together with the old senators who 
were called patres. Hence the expression 
Patres Conscripti which was afterwards ap¬ 
plied to all the senators. 

Persons were chosen into the senate first by 
the kings, after their expulsion by the consuls, 
and by the military tribunes, but from A. U. 
310 by the censors ; at first only from the Pa¬ 
tricians, but afterwards also from the Plebe¬ 
ians—chiefly, however, from the Ecpiites. lie 
whose name was entered first in the censor’s 
books was called Princeps Senatus, which title 
conferred rank only, not power. 

The age at which one might be chosen a 


56 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


senator is not sufficiently ascertained, but was 
probably not under thirty. The first civil office 
which gave admission into the senate, was 
the Quasstorship. He did not, however, there¬ 
by become a senator, unless he was chosen into 
that order by the censors. Sometimes persons 
procured admission also into the senate by 
military service. The Flamen Dialis, or priest 
of Jupiter, had a seat in the senate in right of 
his office, which none of the other priests en¬ 
joyed. Regard was had to the fortune of a 
person before he could become a senator. An 
estate of four hundred sestertia, and in after 
times, of twelve hundred, was requisite. 

The badges of the senators were,—1. The 
Latus Clavus or Tunica laticlavia, which was a 
tunic with an oblong broad stripe of purple, 
like a riband, sewed to it, on the fore part. It 
was broad, to distinguish it from that of the 
Equites, who wore a narrow one.—2. Black 
buskins reaching to the middle of the leg, with 
the letter O, in silver, on the top of the foot.— 
3. A particular place at the public spectacles. 

The dictator, consuls, and in their absence 
the prmtors, the military tribunes, the tribunes 
of the people, and the interrex, had the power 
of assembling the senate. It was at first as¬ 
sembled by a public officer, called viator, but 
in later times, by an edict. If any senator 
refused or neglected to attend, he was punish 
ed by a fine, and by distraining his goods, un¬ 
less he had a just excuse. But after the age 


THE SENATE. 


57 


of sixty, the senators might attend or not, as 
they pleased. 

The senate could not be held except in a 
temple, that is, in a place consecrated by the 
augurs ; that thus their- deliberations might be 
rendered more solemn. Anciently, there were 
but three places where it could meet, two with¬ 
in the city, and the temple of Bellona without 
it. Afterwards there were several other places 
where it convened. 

On two special occasions the senate was 
held without the city in the temple of Bellona, 
or of Apollo, for the reception of foreign am¬ 
bassadors, and to give audience to their own 
generals, who were never allowed to come 
within the city walls while in actual com¬ 
mand. 

When a report was brought that an oX had 
spoken, (a thing frequently mentioned in an¬ 
cient authors,) the senate met in the open air. 

The stated meetings of the senate (senates 
legithnus) were on the kalends, nones, and ides 
of every month, but after the time of Augus¬ 
tus, on the kalends and ides. An extraordi¬ 
nary meeting (senatvs indictuSf or edictus) 
might be called upon any other day, except 
the dies comitialis^ and even then, in dangerous 
conjunctures, in which case the senate might 
postpone the comitia. 

No decree could be made unless there was 
a quorum. What number constituted a quo¬ 
rum is uncertain. If any one wished to hin- 


58 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


der a decree from being passed, and suspected 
there was not a quorum, he said to the magis¬ 
trate presiding, “ numera senatum,^ count the 
senate. 

The magistrate who-was to hold the senate, 
offered a sacrifice, and took the auspices be¬ 
fore he entered the senate house. If the aus¬ 
pices were unfavorable, or not rightly taken, 
the business was deferred to another day. 
Augustus ordered that each senator, before he 
took his seat, should pay his devotions, with 
an offering of frankincense and wine, at the 
altar of that god in whose temple they were 
to assemble, that thus they might discharge 
their duty the more religiously. 

When the consuls entered the senate house, 
the senators commonly rose up to do them honor. 

The senate was consulted about every thing 
pertaining to the administration of the state, 
except the creation of magistrates, the passing 
of laws, and the determination of war and 
peace, all which properly belonged to the Ro¬ 
man people. 

When a full house was assembled, the pre¬ 
siding magistrate laid the business before them 
in a set form, and the senators were asked 
their opinion. The princeps senatus was first 
requested to give his opinion, unless consuls 
elect were present, who were always asked 
first. So the prsBtors, tribunes, &c., elect, seem 
to have had the same preference before the 
rest of their order 


THE SENATE. 


69 


Nothing could be laid before the senate 
against the will of the consuls, unless by the 
tribunes of the people, who might also give 
their negative against any decree by the sol¬ 
emn word Veto, which was called interceding, 
{intercedere.) This might also be done by all 
who had an equal or greater authority than 
the magistrate presiding. 

The senators delivered their opinion stand¬ 
ing ; but when they only assented to the opin¬ 
ion of another, they continued sitting. 

It was not lawful for the consuls to inter¬ 
rupt those who spoke, although they intro¬ 
duced in their speeches many things foreign 
to the subject: which they sometimes did, that 
they might waste the day in speaking ; for no 
new reference could be made after the tenth 
hour, i. e. four o’clock in the afternoon, nor a 
decree passed after sunset, except on very ex¬ 
traordinary occasions. 

Those who abused this right of speaking 
were sometimes forced to yield, by the noise 
and clamor of the other senators. 

In matters of very great importance, the 
senators sometimes delivered their opinion 
upon oath. They sometimes made their ad¬ 
dress to the house by the title of patres con- 
scripti, sometimes to the consul, or presiding 
officer. 

When several opinions had been offered and 
^ each supported by a number of senators, the 
' presiding magistrate might first put to vote 


60 


ANTiaUITIES OP ROME. 


which opinion he pleased, or suppress altogeth¬ 
er what he disapproved. And herein consisted 
the chief power of the consul in the senate. 
A decree was made by a separation of the 
senators to different parts of the house. He 
who presided said, “ Let those who are of such 
an opinion pass over to that side, those who 
think differently to this.’^ Those senators who 
only voted but did not speak, or, as some say, 
who had the right of voting but not of speak¬ 
ing, were called pedarii^ because they signi¬ 
fied their opinion by their feet, not by their 
tongues. When a decree was made without 
any opinions being asked or given, it was call¬ 
ed senatus consultum per discessionem. But 
when the opinions of the senators were asked, 
it was simply called senatus consultum. 

When secrecy was necessary, the clerks and 
other attendants were not admitted, but what 
was passed was written out by one of the sen¬ 
ators, and the decree was called taciturn. 

Public registers {acta) were kept of what 
was done in the assemblies of the people, and 
by courts of justice, also of births, funerals, 
marriages, divorces, &c. 

In writing a decree of the senate, the time 
and place were put first, then the names of 
those who were present at the engrossing of 
it, after that, the motion, with the name of the 
magistrate who proposed it, to all which was 
subjoined what the senate decreed. 

The decrees of the senate, when written out, 


TIIE SENATE. 


61 


were laid up in the treasury, where also the 
laws, and other writings pertaining to the re¬ 
public, were kept. Anciently they were kept 
by the ^diles in the temple of Ceres. The 
place where these public records were kept 
was called tahularium. The decrees of the 
senate concerning Casar were inscribed in 
golden letters on columns of silver. Seve¬ 
ral decrees still exist, engraven on tables of 
brass. 

The decrees of the senate, when not car¬ 
ried to the treasury, were reckoned invalid. 
Hence it was ordained under Tiberius, that 
their decrees, especially concerning the capital 
punishment of any one, should not be carried 
to the treasury before the tenth day, that the 
emperor, if absent from the city, might have 
an opportunity of considering them, and, if he 
thought proper, of mitigating them. 

Decrees of the senate were rarely reversed. 
While a question was under debate, every one 
was at liberty to express his dissent; but when 
it was once determined, it was looked upon as 
the common duty of each member to support 
the opinion of the majority. 

After every thing was finished, the magis¬ 
trates presiding dismissed the senate with a 
set form. 

The power of the senate was different at 
different times. Under the regal government, 
they were mere counsellors of the king, but 
afterwards every thing was done by their au- 
6 


m 


ANTiaUlTIES OP ROME. 


thority. No law could be passed, nor assem- 
bly of the people held, without their consent. 
After the creation of military tribunes, the au¬ 
thority of the senate was in process of time 
greatly diminished. 

Although the supreme power at Rome be¬ 
longed to the people, yet they seldom enacted 
any thing without the authority of the senate. 
In all weighty matters, the method usually 
observed was, that the senate should first de¬ 
liberate and decree, and then the people order. 
But there were many things of great import¬ 
ance which the senate always determined 
itself, unless when they were brought before 
the people by the intercessions of the tribunes. 
This right it seems to have enjoyed not from 
any express law, but by the custom of their 
ancestors. 

The senate assumed to themselves the guar¬ 
dianship of the public religion ; so that no new 
god could be introduced, nor altar erected, nor 
the Sybilline books^' consulted without their 
order. They had the direction of the treasury; 
they settled the provinces which were annu¬ 
ally assigned to the consuls and praetors ; they 
nominated out of their own body all ambassa¬ 
dors sent from Rome, and gave to foreign am¬ 
bassadors what answers they thought proper; 
they decreed all public thanksgivings for vic¬ 
tories, and conferred the honors of an ovation 
or triumph, with the title of imperator, on their 
* See Chap. IV. Sec. II 


THE SENATE. 


63 


victorious generals; they could decree the title 
of king to any prince whom they pleased, and 
declare any one an enemy by a vote; they 
inquired into public crimes and treasons within 
Rome or the other parts of Italy, and heard 
and determined all disputes among the allied 
and dependent cities ; they exercised a power 
not only of interpreting the laws, but of ab¬ 
solving men from the obligation of them ; they 
could postpone the assemblies of the people, 
and prescribe a change of habit to the city in 
cases of any imminent danger or calamity. 
But the power of the senate was chiefly con¬ 
spicuous in civil dissensions or dangerous 
tumults within the city, in which they passed 
that solemn decree, “ that the consuls should 
take care that the republic should receive no 
harm.” By this decree, an absolute power 
was granted to the consuls to punish and put 
to death whom they pleased, without the form 
of a trial; to raise forces, and carry on war 
without the order of the people. 

Although the decrees 'of the senate had not 
properly the force of laws, and took place 
mostly in those matters which were not pro¬ 
vided for by the laws, yet they were under¬ 
stood always to have a binding force, and 
were therefore obeyed by all orders. The 
consuls themselves were obliged to submit to 
them. In the last ages of the republic the 
authority of the senate was little regarded by 
the leading men and their creatures, who by 


G4 


ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. 


means of bribery obtained from a corrupt 
populace what they desired, in defiance of the 
senate. 


Section VII. 

Courts of Justice, and Judicial Proceedings in 
Civil and Criminal Trials, 

The Judicial Proceedings {judicia) of the 
Romans were either private or public, or in 
modern terms, civil or criminal. 

The judicia privata, or civil trials, were 
concerning private causes, or differences be¬ 
tween private persons. In these at first the 
kings presided, then the consuls, but after A. 
U. 379, the praetor. The judicial power of 
the praetor was called jurisdictio, and of the 
praetors who presided at criminal trials qUcestio. 

On court days, early in the morning, the 
praetor went to the forum, and there being 
seated on his tribunal, ordered an acccnsus to 
call out to the people around that it was the 
third hour, and whoever had any cause might 
bring it before him. This could be done only 
by a certain form. 

If a person had a difference with any one, 
and the matter could not be settled privately, 
the plaintiff {actor or petitor') ordered his ad¬ 
versary to go with him before the praetor. If 
he refused to go, the prosecutor took some one 



COURTS OP JUSTICE, ETC. 


65 


present to witness his refusal, and then the 
plaintiff might drag the defendant {reus) to 
court by force. It was unlawful to force any 
one to court from his own house, because a 
man’s house was esteemed his sanctuary. But 
if any lurked at home to elude a prosecution 
he was summoned three times, with an inter¬ 
val of ten days between each summons, by 
the voice of a herald, by letters, or by the 
edict of the praetor; and if he still did not 
appear, the prosecutor was put in possession 
of his effects. 

When both parties appeared before the 
praetor, the plaintiff proposed the action (acLio) 
which he intended to bring against the de¬ 
fendant, and demanded from the praetor a 
writ {formula) for that purpose. At the same 
time the defendant requested that an advocate, 
or lawyer, should be assigned to him to assist 
with his counsel. The writ being obtained, 
the plaintiff offered it to the defendant or dic¬ 
tated to him the words. This writ it was un¬ 
lawful to change, and the greatest caution was 
also requisite in drawing it up, for if there was 
a mistake in one word the whole cause was 
lost. The plaintiff then required that the de¬ 
fendant should give bail for his appearance in 
court {vades dare or vadimonium promittere) on 
a certain day, which was usually the third day 
after. When the day came, if either party 
when cited was not present, he lost his cause 
unless he had a valid excuse. 

6 * 


66 


ANTiaUITIES OP ROME. 


Actions were either real, persona], or mixed. 
A real action {actio in rem) was for obtaining 
a thing to which one had a real right, but 
which was possessed by another. A personal 
action {actio in personam) was against a per¬ 
son to bind him to do or to give something 
which he was bound to do or give by reason 
of a contract; or for some wrong done him 
by the plaintiff. A mixed action had relation 
both to persons and things. 

A sum of money was deposited by both 
parties in a suit, called sacramentum., which 
fell to the gaining party after the cause was 
determined ; or a stipulation was made about 
the payment of a certain sum called sponsio. 
Either party lost his cause in real actions, if 
he refused to enter into this stipulation or to 
deposite the money required. 

Personal actions, called also condictiones, 
were very numerous. In verbal bargains or 
stipulations there were fixed forms usually ob-. 
served between the two parties. He who gave 
a wrong account of a thing to be disposed of 
was bound to make up the damage. In all 
important contracts, bonds {syngraphce) form¬ 
ally written out, signed and sealed, were mu¬ 
tually exchanged between the parties. 

Actions for a private wrong were of four 
kinds, for theft, {ex furto,) for robbery, {ex ra- 
pina,) for damage, {ex damno,) and for personal 
injury, {ex injuria.) 

There were different kinds of judges {ju- 


COURTS OP JUSTICE, ETC. 


67 


dices) or jurymen. A judex judged both of 
fact and law, but only in such cases as were 
easy and of small importance, and then ac¬ 
cording to a fixed law or form. An arbiter 
determined what seemed equitable in a thing 
not sufficiently defined by law. Recuperatores 
judged about recovering and restoring private 
things, and afterwards in other matters. Cen- 
tumviri were judges chosen from the thirty- 
five tribes, three from each. They judged 
chiefly concerning testaments and inheritan¬ 
ces. 

In the trial, the plaintiff proposed to the de¬ 
fendant such judge or judges as he thought 
proper. The defendant might object to the 
judge, and then another was- named. The 
praetor might, if he thought proper, appoint 
different judges from those chosen by the par¬ 
ties, although he seldom did so; and no one 
could refuse to act as judex when required, 
without a just cause. 

The praetor prescribed the number of wit¬ 
nesses to be called, which commonly did not 
exceed ten. After this followed a short narra¬ 
tion of the cause {Litis contestatio) by both 
parties, corroborated by the testimony of wit¬ 
nesses, and the parties warned each other to 
attend the third day after. 

When this day arrived, the trial proceeded, 
unless the judge or some of the parties were 
absent from a necessary cause, in which case 
the trial was adjourned. If the judge was 


68 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


present, he first took an oath that he would 
judge according to law, according to the best 
of his judgment. The judge generally as¬ 
sumed some lawyers {consiliarii) to assist him 
with their counsel. The judge or judges de¬ 
termined how long each advocate should plead 
the cause. The pleadings being ended, judg¬ 
ment was given after mid-day, according to 
the law of the twelve tables. If there was 
any difficulty in the cause the judge took some 
time to consider it, and if, after all, he re¬ 
mained uncertain, he said “nihi non liquet” 
“ I am not clear.” And thus the affair was 
either left undetermined, or the cause was 
again returned. If there were several judges, 
judgment was given according to the opinion 
of the majority. If their opinions were equal, 
it was left to the praetor to determine. 

After judgment was given and the lawsuit 
was determined, the conquered party was 
obliged to do or pay what was decreed, and if 
he failed or did not find securities {sponsores) 
within thirty days, he was given up by the 
praetor to his adversary, and led away by him 
to servitude. 

After sentence was passed, the matter could 
not be altered except where it was discovered 
that some mistake or fraud had been com¬ 
mitted. There was an appeal {appellatio) from 
an inferior to a superior magistrate and court. 

If after the cause was decided the defend¬ 
ant was acquitted, he might bring an action 


COURTS OF JUSTICE, ETC. 


69 


against the plaintiff for false accusation, {ca- 
lumnia.) 

Criminal trials (piiblica judicia) were at first 
held and judged by the kings and consuls, and 
then by the people, or by inquisitors {qucesitors) 
appointed by the people. Afterwards certain 
praetors always took cognizance of certain 
crimes, and the senate or people seldom inter¬ 
fered except by way of appeal. 

Trials before the people {judicia ad jyopulum) 
were, after the institution of the comitia cen- 
tuHata and tributa, held in them ; capital trials 
in the comitia centuriata; and trials concerning 
a fine, in the tributa. The method of proceed¬ 
ing in both comitia was the same ; and it was 
requisite that some magistrate should be the 
accuser. 

The magistrate, who was to accuse any 
one, having called an assembly and mounted 
the Rostra^* gave notice that he would on a 
certain day accuse a particular person of a 
particular crime, and ordered that the person 
accused {reus) should then be present. In the 
mean time the criminal was kept in custody, 
unless he found persons to give security for his 
appearance. 

At the day of the trial, any equal or supe¬ 
rior magistrate might, by his negative, hinder 
the trial from proceeding. 


* Rostra properly signified the beaks of ships, and as the 
tribunal or stage was adorned with these, it was called ros¬ 
tra. 


70 


ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. 


The criminal usually stood under the rostra 
in a mean garb, where he was exposed to the 
scoffs and railleries of the people. The accu¬ 
ser repeated his charge three times, with the 
intervention of a day between each, and sup¬ 
ported it by witnesses and other proofs. An 
advocate (patronus) was perrnitted to make a 
defence for the criminal, in which every thing 
was introduced which could serve to gain the 
favor of the people, or excite their compassion. 

Then the comitia were summoned against a 
certain day, in which th^ people by their suf¬ 
frages should determine the fate of the crimi¬ 
nal. The criminal having laid aside his usual 
robe, put on a ragged and old gown, and in 
this garb went round and supplicated the citi¬ 
zens in his behalf. His friends and relations, 
and others who chose, did the same. 

The people gave their votes in the same 
manner in a trial as in passing a law. 

In criminal trials before the praetor, the 
judices were chosen, at different periods of 
the republic, from the senators and equites, 
sometimes from one order, sometimes from 
both, and occasionally from the plebeians. The 
number of the judices were different at differ¬ 
ent times, varying from three hundred to six 
hundred. 

Of defenders (definsores) there were four 
kinds ; patroni, who pleaded the cause ; advo~ 
cati, who assisted by their counsel; procura- 
tores, attorneys who managed the business of 


COURTS OF JUSTICE, ETC. 


71 


a person in his absence ; and cognitores, who 
defended the cause of a person when present. 
The two latter were employed only in private 
trials. 

The proofs were of three kinds; the decla¬ 
ration of slaves extorted by torture, {quces- 
tiones;) the testimony of free citizens, {testes;) 
and writings, (tabulce.) 

A false witness was thrown from the Tar- 
peian rock; except in war, when he was beat¬ 
en to death with sticks by his fellow-soldiers. 

The praetor gave to each ywiZea? three tables; 
on one was written the letter C., for condemno, 
* I condemn on another the letter A., for ab¬ 
solve, ‘ I acquitor on the third, N. L., non 
liquet, ‘ I cannot decide.’ Each of the judices 
threw which of these tablets he thought pro¬ 
per into an urn. The praetor having taken 
these out and counted them, pronounced sen¬ 
tence according to the opinion of the majority. 
If the number of judges who condemned, and 
of those who acquitted was equal, the crimi¬ 
nal was acquitted. 

While the judices were putting the ballots 
into the urn, the criminal and his friends threw 
themselves at their feet, and employed every 
method to excite their compassion. 

The praetor, when about to pronounce a sen¬ 
tence of condemnation, laid aside his toga prce- 
texta. 


72 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME, 


Section YIII. 

Punishments, 

Punishments among the Romans were of 
eight kinds. 

1. Mulcta or damnum^ a fine, which at first 
never exceeded two oxen and thirty sheep, or 
the valuation of them. 

2. Vincula, bonds, which included public 
and private custody ; public, in prison, {career;) 
and private, when delivered to magistrates to 
be kept at their houses {in libera custodia) till 
they should be tried. Under the name of vin¬ 
cula, were comprehended catence, chains; com- 
pedes, or pedicce, or fetters for the feet; mani- 
ccB, manacles or bonds for the hands ; nervus, 
an iron shackle for the feet or neck ; a wooden 
frame with holes, called also columbar; and 
boice, leathern thongs and iron chains, for tying 
the neck or feet. 

3. Verbera, beating or scourging with sticks 
or staves, { fustes;} with rods, {pirgee;) with 
whips or lashes, {flagella.) 

4. Talio, retaliation, a punishment similar to 
the injury, as an eye for an eye, a limb for a 
limb, &c. This punishment seems to have 
been very rarely inflicted. 

5. Ignominia or infamia, disgrace or infamj^, 
inflicted by the censors, by the law, or by the 
edict of the praetor. Those made infamous by 


PUNISHMENTS. 


73 


a judicial sentence, were deprived of their 
dignity, and rendered ineligible to public offi¬ 
ces ; sometimes also incapable of being wit¬ 
nesses or of making a will; hence called in- 
testabiles. 

6. Exilium, banishment or exile. This 
word was not used in a judicial sentence, but 
aqucB et ignis interdictio, ‘ forbidding one the 
use of fire and water,’ whereby a person was 
banished from Italy, but might go to any other 
place he might wish. Augustus introduced 
two new forms of banishment, deportatio,* 
perpetual banishment; relegatio, either a tem¬ 
porary or perpetual banishment without a de¬ 
privation of rights and fortunes. 

7. Servitus, slavery. Those were sold as 
slaves who did not give in their names to be 
enrolled in the censor’s books, or refused to 
enlist as soldiers ; because they were thus sup¬ 
posed to have voluntarily renounced the rights 
of citizens. 

8. Mors, death. Banishment and slavery 
were called a civil death. Only the most hei¬ 
nous crimes were punished by a violent death. 
In ancient times it appears to have been the 
most usual practice to hang malefactors, af¬ 
terwards to scourge and behead them, (securi 
percutere ;) to throw them from the Tarpeian 
rock, {de saxo Tarpeio dejicere;) or from that 

* In this form of banishment, the condemned were de¬ 
prived of their rights and fortunes, and banished to a certain 
place, without permission to go anywhere else. 


74 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


part of the prison called Robur ; and to stran¬ 
gle them in prison. 

The bodies of criminals were not burned or 
buried; but exposed before the prison, usually 
on certain stairs called gemonice, and then 
dragged with a hook, and thrown into the Ti¬ 
ber. Sometimes, however, their friends pur¬ 
chased the right of burying them. 

Under the Emperors several new and more 
severe punishments were contrived; as expos¬ 
ing to wild beasts, burning alive, &c. When 
criminals were burnt, they were dressed in a 
tunic spread over with pitch and other combus¬ 
tible matter. 

Sometimes persons were condemned to the 
public vrorks, to engage with wild beasts, or 
fight as gladiators, or were employed as pub¬ 
lic slaves in attending on the public baths, in 
cleansing common sewers, or repairing the 
streets and highways. 

Slaves, after being scourged, were crucified, 
usually with a label or inscription on their 
breast intimating their crime. In the time of 
Augustus a new species of cruelty to slaves 
was devised—that of throwing them into a 
fish-pond to be devoured by lampreys, {mu~ 

r<2n(jB.) 

A person guilty of parricide, that is, of mur¬ 
dering a parent or any near relation, after 
having been severely scourged, was sewed up 
in a sack (culeus) with a dog, a cock, a viper, 
and an ape, and then thrown into the sea. 


PUBLIC AND PRIVATE RIGHTS, ETC. 


75 


Section IX. 

Public and Private Rights of Roman Citizens 
and of Foreigners, 

While Rome was but small and thinly in¬ 
habited, whoever fixed their abode in the city, 
or Roman territory, obtained the rights of citi¬ 
zens. 

Besides those who had settled in the Roman 
territory, the freedom of the city was after¬ 
wards granted to several foreign towns, which 
were then called municipia and the inhabitants 
municipes^ and some of these might enjoy offices 
at Rome. 

But when the Roman empire was more 
widely extended, and the dignity of a Roman 
citizen began to be more valued, the freedom 
of the city {jus civitatis) was more sparingly 
conferred, and in different degrees, according 
to the merits of the allies towards the republic. 

The rights of Roman citizens were either 
public or private ; the former were called jus 
civitatis, and the latter, jus Quiritium. 

The public rights of Roman citizens were— 

1. Jus census, the right of being enrolled in 
the censor’s books. 

2. Jus militicB, the right of serving in the 
army, which at first was peculiar to the higher 
order of citizens, but afterwards, under the 
emperors, soldiers were taken not only from 


76 


ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. 


Italy and the provinces, but also from barbar¬ 
ous nations. 

3. Jus trihiitorum, the right of taxation, 
which was publicly imposed upon each indi- 

* vidual through the tribes, in proportion to the 
valuation of his estates. 

4. Jus suffragii, the right of voting in the 
different assemblies of the people. 

5. Jus honor'um, the right of bearing public 
offices in the state, which were either priest¬ 
hoods or magistracies, and at first were con¬ 
ferred only on Patricians, but afterwards were 
nearly all shared with the Plebeians. 

6. Jus sacrorum, the right of religious solem¬ 
nities, which were either public, those per¬ 
formed at the public expense ; or private, those 
which every one privately observed at home. 
Every father of a family had his household 
gods which he worshipped at home. 

It was a maxim among the Romans that no 
one could be a citizen of Rome who suffered 
himself to be made a citizen of any other 
city. If any foreigner who had obtained the 
freedom of Rome returned to his native city 
and became a citizen of it, he ceased to be a 
Roman citizen. 

The jus Latii was the rights which the in¬ 
habitants of Latinum enjoyed, and which 
were but little inferior to the jus civitatis of the 
city. 

The jus Italicum was a right enjoyed by the 
inhabitants of Italia, inferior to XliQjus Latii, 


PUBLIC AND PRIVATE RIGHTS OP ROMANS. 77 


All those who were not citizens, were 
called foreigners, {peregrini^ but afterwards 
the inhabitants of the whole world were di¬ 
vided into Romans and Barbarians. Foreigners 
might live in the city, but they enjoyed none 
of the privileges of citizens. They were sub¬ 
ject to a particular jurisdiction, and sometimes 
were expelled from the city at the pleasure of 
the magistrates. They could not wear the 
Roman dress, nor had they the right of legal 
property, or of making a will. When a for¬ 
eigner died, his goods were either reduced into 
the treasury as having no heir, or if he had at¬ 
tached himself to any person as a patron, that 
person succeeded to his effects. But in pro¬ 
cess of time the inconveniences were removed, 
and foreigners werq elevated to the highest 
honors in the state. 

The private rights of Roman citizens were, 
1. Jus Libertatis, the right of liberty ;—2. Jus 
Gentilitatis et Familice, the right of family ;— 
3. Jus Connuhii, the right of marriage ;—4. 
Jus Patrium, the right of a father;—5. Jus 
Dominii Legitimi, the right of legal property; 
—6. Jus Testamenti et Hereditaiis^ the right of 
making a will, and of succeeding to an inherit¬ 
ance ;—7. Jus TutelcBi the right of tutelage or 
wardship. . 

1. The right of liberty comprehended/ree- 
dom not only from the power of masters, but 
also from the dominion of tyrants, the severity 
of magistrates, the cruelty of creditors, and 

•y* 


78 


ANTiaUITIES OP ROME. 


the insolence of more powerful citizens. After 
the expulsion of Tarquin, a law was made, 
that no one should be king at Rome, and that 
whoever should form a design of making him¬ 
self king, might be slain with impunity. At 
the same time the people were bound by an 
oath, that they would never suffer a king to be 
created. 

Roman citizens were secured against the 
tyrannical treatment of magistrates, by the 
right of appealing from them to the people, 
and that the person who appealed, should in 
no manner be punished till the people deter¬ 
mined the matter; but chiefly by the assistance 
of the tribunes. 

None but the whole Roman people in the 
comitia centuriata, could pass sentence on the 
life of a Roman citizen. The simple expres¬ 
sion, “ I am a Roman citizen,” checked their 
severest decrees. 

By the laws of the twelve tables, it was or¬ 
dained that insolvent debtors should be given 
up to their creditors to be bound in fetters and 
cords, whence they were called nexU ohcerati, 
and addicti. And although they did not en¬ 
tirely lose the rights of freemen, yet they were 
nevertheless in actual slavery, and frequently 
treated more harshly than even slaves them¬ 
selves. 

To check the cruelty of usurers, a law was 
made A. U. 429, that no debtors should be 
kept in irons or bonds; that the goods of the 


PUBLIC AND PRIVATE RIGHTS OP ROMANS. 79 

debtor, not his person, should be given up to * 
his creditors. 

2. The right of family. Each gens, and 
each family, had certain sacred rights peculiar 
to itself, which went by inheritance in the 
same manner as effects. When heirs by the 
father’s side of the same family became extinct, 
those of the same gens succeeded in prefer¬ 
ence to relations by the mother’s side of the' 
same family. No one could pass from a Pa¬ 
trician family to a Plebeian, or from a Ple¬ 
beian to a Patrician, except by a form of adop¬ 
tion, which could only be made at the comitia 
curiata, 

3. The right of marriage. No Roman citi¬ 
zen was permitted to marry a slave, a barba¬ 
rian, or a foreigner, unless by the permission 
of the people. By the laws of the Decemviri, 
intermarriages between the Patricians and 
Plebeians were prohibited. But this restric¬ 
tion was soon abolished. But when a Patri¬ 
cian lady married a Plebeian,* she was ex¬ 
cluded from the sacred rights of Patrician 
ladies. 

4. The right of a father. A father among 
the Romans had the power of life and death 
over his children. He could not only expose 
them when infants, but even when grown up 
he might imprison, scourge, send them bound 
to work in the country, and also put them to 
death by any punishment he pleased. 

A son could acquire no property but with 


80 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


his father’s consent, and what he did thus 
acquire, was called his peculium, as that of a 
slave. 

Tho power of the father was suspended 
when the son was promoted to any public of¬ 
fice, but not extinguished ; for it continued not 
only during the life of the children, but like¬ 
wise extended to grandchildren and great¬ 
grandchildren. None of them became en¬ 
tirely their own masters {sui juris) till the 
death of their father and grandfather. A 
daughter, by marriage, passed from the power 
of her father under that of her husband. 

A father could render a son free from his 
authority, by a form of emancipation similar 
to that used in giving a slave his freedom, ex¬ 
cept in the case of the slave he was sold but 
once, while a son was sold three times before 
the praetor. 

When a man had no children of his own, 
lest his sacred rights and name should be lost, 
he might assume strangers {extranei) as his 
children by adoption. 

5. The right of property. Things with re¬ 
spect to property among the Romans were va¬ 
riously divided. Some things were said to be 
of divine right, and were held sacred, {res 
sacra,) as altars, temples, or any thing publicly 
consecrated to the gods by the authority of the 
pontiffs ; or religious, {religioscE,) as sepulchres; 
or inviolable, (sanctcB,) as the walls and gates 
of a city. Other things were said to be of 


PUBLIC AND PRIVATE RIGHTS OF ROMANS. 81 

human right, and were called profane, (joro- 
fance.) These were either public and com¬ 
mon, as the air, running water, the sea, &c.; 
or private, which might be the property of in¬ 
dividuals. Private things were either 7'es man- 
dpi, those which might be sold, or the posses¬ 
sion of them transferred from one person to 
another; and nec mandpi res, those things 
which could not be thus transferred. 

The transferring of property was made by 
a certain act called mandpatio, in which the 
same formalities were observed as in emanci¬ 
pating a son, only that it was done but once. 

There were other modes of acquiring legal 
property, as^'z^re cessio, when a person gave 
up his effects to any one before the praetor, 
who adjudged them to the person who claimed 
them, as in the case of debtors giving up their 
goods to their creditors; usucaptio, when one 
obtained the property of a thing by possessing 
it for a certain time without interruption, {usur- 
patio;) emitio sub corona, purchasing captives 
in war; audio, when things were exposed to 
public sale; adjudicatio, which took place in 
dividing an inheritance among co-heirs, in di¬ 
viding a joint stock among partners, and in 
settling boundaries among neighbors ; donatio, 
donation, gift, or dowry. 

6. The right of testament and inheritance. 
None but Roman citizens could make a will or 
be witness to it, or inherit any thing by it. 

The usual method of making a will was by 


82 


ANTiaUITIES OP ROME. 


money and scales, {jper cbs et lihram) where in 
the presence of five witnesses, a weigher, (Z^- 
hripensy) and his witness, (antestatus,) the tes¬ 
tator, by an imaginary sale, disposed of his 
family and property to one who was called 
familicB emptor, who was not the heir, but was 
only admitted for the sake of form, that it 
might appear that the testator had alienated 
his effects in his lifetime. This act was called 
familicB mancipatio. These formalities were 
not always observed, especially in later times. 
It was considered sufficient if one subscribed 
his will, or even named his heir viva voce be¬ 
fore seven witnesses. 

Testaments were subscribed by the testator, 
and usually by the witnesses, and sealed with 
their seals or rings. They were likewise tied 
with a thread drawn thrice through holes, and 
sealed. Like all other civil deeds, they were 
always written in Latin. (A legacy expressed 
in Greek was not valid.) These were deposit¬ 
ed either privately in the hands of a friend, or 
in a temple with the keeper of it. 

When additions were made to a will they 
were called codicilli. If any one died without 
making a will {intestatus) his property de¬ 
scended to his nearest relations, first to his 
children ; or failing them, to his nearest rela¬ 
tions by the father’s side ; and failing them, 
to those of the same gens. 

7. The right of tutelage or wardship. A 
father might leave whom he pleased as guar- 


REVENUES AND ADMINISTRATION OF FINANCE. 83 


dians (tutores) to his children. But if he died 
intestate, this charge devolved by law on the 
nearest relation by the father^s side. This 
gave occasion to many frauds, to the injury 
of wards, (pupilli.) 

When there was no guardian by testament, 
nor a legal one, then a guardian was appoint¬ 
ed to minors and to women, by the praetor and 
the majority of the tribunes of the people. 

Women could not transact any business of 
importance without the concurrence of their 
parents, husbands, or guardians; and a hus¬ 
band at his death might appoint a guardian 
to his wife, or leave her the choice of her own 
guardians. 


Section X. 

Revenues and Administration of Finance, 

There were several sources of revenue among 
the Romans. Trihutum was a tax publicly 
imposed on the people, which was exacted 
from each individual through the tribes, in 
proportion to the valuation of his estates. 
Money publicly exacted on any other account, 
was called vectigal. 

There were three kinds of tribute: one im« 
posed equally on each person; another ac¬ 
cording to valuation of his property; and a 


84 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


third which was extraordinary, and demanded 
only in cases of necessity. This last was, in 
many cases, voluntary; and an account of it 
was taken that when the treasury was again 
enriched it might be repaid, as was done after 
the second Punic war. 

After the expulsion of the kings, the poor 
were for some time exempted from the burden 
of taxes until the year A. U. 349, when the 
senate decreed that pay should be given from 
the treasury to the common soldiers in the ar¬ 
my who had hitherto served at their own ex¬ 
pense ; whereupon all were obliged to con¬ 
tribute annually, according to their fortune, 
for the pay of the soldiers. In the year of the 
city 586, annual tributes were remitted on ac¬ 
count of the immense sums brought into the 
treasury by L. Paulus ^Emilius after the defeat 
of Perseus ; and this immunity from taxes 
continued down to the time of Julius Ca3sar. 

The other taxes {vectigalia) were of three 
kinds, 'portorium, decumce, and scriptura. 

1. Portorium was money paid at the port for 
goods imported and exported, the collectors of 
which were called portitores ; or for carrying 
goods over a bridge, where every carriage 
paid a certain sum to the exactor of the toll. 

2. Decumce, tithes, were the tenth part of 
corn, and the fifth part of other fruits, which 
^ere exacted from those who tilled the public 
lands, either in Italy or without it. Those 
who farmed the tithes were called decumani^ 


REVENUES AND ADMCNISTRATION OF FIN \NCE. 85 

and esteemed the most honorable of the pub¬ 
licans, as agriculture was esteemed the most 
honorable way of making a fortune among 
the Romans. 

3. Scriptura was the tax paid from public 
pastures and woods, so called because those 
who wished to feed their cattle there subscribe 
ed their names before the farmer of them, and 
paid a certain sum for each beast. 

All these taxes were let, publicly, by the 
censors at Rome. Those who farmed them 
were called publicani or mancipes. They also 
gave security {prcedes) to the people, and had 
partners who shared the profit and loss with 
them. 

There was, for a long time, a tax upon salt; 
and another called vicesima, which was the 
twentieth part of the value of any slave who 
was freed. Various other taxes were imposed 
by the emperors, as the hundredth part of 
things to be sold, the twentieth of inheritances, 
taxes on eatables, &c. The people of the pro^ 
vinces, besides the scripturce, were obliged to 
furnish a certain number of cattle from their 
flock. They also paid a tax for journeys, es¬ 
pecially for carrying a corpse, which could not 
be transported from one place to another with¬ 
out the permission of the high priest, or of the 
emperor. But this tax was afterwards abol¬ 
ished. 

There was a tax on iron, silver, and gold 
mines, on marble, and on salt-pits. 

8 


86 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


The qucBStors were the treasurers of the re¬ 
public. Two of these remained at Rome, and 
were called qucestores urhani : the rest, provin- 
dales or militares. The principal charge of 
the city quaestors was the care of the treasury, 
which was kept in the temple of Saturn. 
They received and expended the public money, 
exacted the fines imposed by the people, &c. 
The money thus raised was called argentum 
multatitium. 


CHAPTER III. 

MILITARY AND NAVAL AFFAIRS OF THE ROMANS. 


Section I. 

Manner of Dedaring War and Levying Soldiers, 

The Romans were a nation of warriors. 
During the existence of their republic they 
were almost always engaged in wars; first, 
with the different states of Italy for five hun¬ 
dred years, and then for about two hundred 
years more, in subduing the various countries 
which composed that immense empire. 

The Romans never engaged in any war 




MANNER OF DECLARING WAR, ETC. 87 

without solemnly proclaiming it. This was 
(lone by a set of priests called/ecia/e^. 

When the Romans thought themselves in¬ 
jured by any nation, they sent one or more of 
these/ecta/e5 to demand redress ; and if it was 
not immediately given, thirty-three days were 
granted to consider the matter, after which 
war might be lawfully declared. Then the 
feciales again went to their confines, and hav¬ 
ing thrown a bloody spear into them, formally 
declared war against that nation. Afterwards, 
when the empire was enlarged and wars were 
carried on with distant nations, this ceremony 
was performed in a certain field near the city, 
called ager hostilis. 

Every citizen was obliged to enlist as a 
soldier, when the public service required, from 
the age of seventeen to forty-six; nor at first, 
could any one enjoy any office in the city, 
who had not served ten campaigns. Every 
foot-soldier was obliged to serve twenty cam¬ 
paigns, and every horseman, ten. At first, 
none of the lowest class were enlisted as sol¬ 
diers, nor freedmen, unless in dangerous con¬ 
junctures. But this was afterwards altered. 

In the first ages of the republic four legions 
were annually raised, two to each consul; 
but afterwards a greater number was raised, 
even up to thirty legions. 

The consuls, after they entered upon their 
office, appointed a day on which all those who 
were of the military age should be present in 


88 


ANTiaUITIES OP ROME. 


the capitoI,when they cited out of each tribe 
such as they pleased, and every one was 
obliged to answer to his name under a severe 
penalty. Their names were written down on 
tables ; hence scrihere, to enlist, to levy. 

In certain wars, and under certain com¬ 
manders, there was the greatest alacrity to 
enlist; but this was not always the case, and 
compulsion, fines, corporal punishment, impri¬ 
sonment, were then resorted to by the magis¬ 
trates. 

In sudden and dangerous emergencies, as 
there was not time to go through the usual 
forms, the consul said, “ Let every one, who 
wishes to save the republic, follow me.” This 
was called coiijuraiio. 

The cavalry were chosen from the body of 
the Equites. 

After the levy was completed, one soldier 
was chosen to repeat over the words of the 
military oath, (sacrainentum,) and the rest swore 
after him. Without this oath no one could 
fight against the enemy. 

The provinces were required to furnish their 
share of infantry and cavalry, called allies, 
(socii.) The troops sent by foreign kings and 
states were called auxiliaries, (auxiliares.) 
Under the emperors, the Roman armies were, 
in a great measure, composed of foreigners. 


DIVISION OF TROOPS, THEIR ARMS, ETC- 


89 


Section II. 

Division of Troops, their Arms, Armor, Officers, 
and Dress, 

After the levy was completed, and the mili¬ 
tary oath administered, the troops were form¬ 
ed into legions, (legiones.) The number of 
men in a legion was different at different 
times. In the time of Polybius, it was 4,200. 

Each legion was divided into ten cohorts, 
(cohortes,) each cohort into three bands, {mani¬ 
ples,) and each maniple into two centuries; so 
there were in a legion thirty maniples and six¬ 
ty centuries. There were usually three hun¬ 
dred cavalry added to each legion, called jus- 
ius equitatus or ala. They were divided into 
ten turmce, or troops, and each turma into three 
decuricB, or bodies of ten men. 

The different kinds of infantry which com¬ 
posed the legion were three, the hastati, prin- 
cipes, and triarii. 

The hastati were so called because they 
fought with long spears. They consisted of 
young men in the flower of life, and formed 
the first line in battle. 

The principes were men of middle age in 
the vigor of life, who occupied the second line. 

The triarii were old soldiers of approved 
valor, who formed the third line. They were 
8 * 


90 


ANTIQUITIES OP ROME. 


also called pilani^ from the pilum or javelin 
which they used. 

There was a fourth kind of troops, called 
velites, from their swiftness and agility, who 
were light-armed soldiers. 

These did not form a part of the legion, and 
had no certain part assigned them, but fought 
in scattered parties, where occasion required. 
To them were joined the slingers (funditores) 
and archers, {sagittarii.) The velites were 
equipped with bows, slings, seven javelins or 
spears, a sword, a round buckler, (par7na,) and 
a helmet, {galea.) 

The arms of the hastati, and triarii, 

both defensive {arma ad tegendum) and otfen- 
sive, {ielaadpeiendum^ were in a great measure 
the same. The scutum was an oblong shield 
with an iron boss {umbo) four feet long and' 
two and a half broad ; the whole covered with 
a bull’s hide. The clypeus was a round shield 
of smaller size. 

The galea was a helmet of brass or iron, 
coming down to the shoulders, but leaving the 
face uncovered. Upon the top of the helmet 
was the crest, (crista,) adorned wdth plumes of 
feathers of various colors. 

The lorica was a coat of mail, generally 
made of leather covered with plates of iron in 
the form of scales. Ocrece were greaves for 
the legs. Caliga was a kind of shoe or cover¬ 
ing for the feet, set with nails, used chiefly by 
the common soldiers. 


DIVISION OF TROOPS, TUEIR ARMS, ETC. 91 

The gladiis or ensis was a sword; the pilum, 
a javelin. 

The cavalry at first used their ordinary cloth¬ 
ing for the sake of agility, that they might 
more easily mount their horses; for they used 
no stirrups, {stapia) as they were afterwards 
called. Their saddles were only coverings of 
cloth to sit on, called ephippia. But the Roman 
cavalry afterwai'ds imitated the manner of the 
Greeks, and used nearly the same armor as the 
infantry. 

In each legion there were six military tri¬ 
bunes who commanded under the consul, each 
in his turn, generally a month at a time. In 
battle, a tribune seems to have had the charge 
of ten centuries. 

The tribunes chose the officers who com¬ 
manded the centuries, called centurions, (cen- 
turiones,) from the common soldiers, according 
to their merit. But this office was sometimes 
disposed of by the consul, or pro-consul. The 
badge of a centurion was a vine-rod or sap¬ 
ling, (vitis.) 

The centurions of the first century of the 
first maniple of the triarii, was called centurio 
primi pili, and presided over all the other cen¬ 
turions, and had charge of the eagle (aquilu) 
or chief standard of the legion. 

Each of the centurions chose two assistants 
or lieutenants, (optiones,) and two standard- 
bearers or ensigns, {sigmferi.) 

He who commanded the cavalry of a legion 


92 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


was called prcefecius alee. Each turma had 
three decuriones, or commanders of ten. 

The troops of the allies, which were also 
called alee from their being stationed on the 
wings, had prasfects {prcefecti) appointed over 
them, who commanded in the same manner as 
the legionary tribunes. 

A third part of the horse, and a fifth part of 
the foot of the allies, were selected and post¬ 
ed near the consul, under the name of extra¬ 
ordinarily and one troop called ablectiy to serve 
as his life-guards. 

Two legions with the due number of caval¬ 
ry, and the allies, formed what was called a 
consular army, {exercitus consularis^ about 
20,000 men. 

The consul appointed lieutenant-generals 
(Jegati) under him. 

The military robe or cloak of the general 
(dux) was called paludamentum or chlamys, of 
a scarlet color, bordered with purple. The 
military cloak of the officers and soldiers was 
called sagum, also chlamys. 


Section III. 

Discijdiney Marches, and Encampments, 

The discipline of the Roman army was 
chiefly conspicuous in their marches and en- 



DISCIPLINE, MARCHES, AND ENCAMPMENTS. 93 

campments. They never passed a night, even 
in the longest marches, without pitching a 
camp and fortifying it with a rampart and 
ditch. Persons were always sent before to 
choose and mark out a proper place for that 
purpose, called metatores. 

When the army stayed but one night in the 
same camp, it was simply called a camp, (cr/s- 
tra ;) if it remained a considerable time, it was 
called a standing-camp, {castra stativa.) 

The form of the camp was generally square. 
It was surrounded with a ditch ( fossa) usually 
nine feet deep and twelve feet broad; and a 
rampart (vellum) composed of the earth dug 
from the ditch, and sharp stakes driven into it. 
The camp had four gates, one on each side, 
and was divided into two parts, the upper and 
lower. The upper part was that next to the 
principal gate, in which was the general’s 
tent, (jyrcBtorium,) with a sufficient space 
around for his retinue. On one side of the 
'prcetorium were the tents of the legati, and on 
the other side that of the qucBstor. Near this 
was the forum, where things were sold. In 
this part of the camp were also the tents of 
the tribunes, prefects, &c. 

The lower part of the camp was separate 
from the upper by a broad open space which 
extended the whole breadth of the camp, call¬ 
ed priucipia. 

In this lower part, the troops were disposed 
in a regular order which never varied ; hence 


94 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


all knew their place after the general’s tent 
was once fixed. 

The tents {tentoria) were covered with leath¬ 
er extended with ropes. In each tent were 
usually ten soldiers with their decanus who 
commanded them. 

In pitching the camp, different divisions of 
the army were appointed to execute different 
parts of the work, under the inspection of the 
tribunes or centurions, as they were likewise 
during the encampment, to procure water, 
forage, wood, &c. 

A certain number of maniples were appoint¬ 
ed to keep guard at the gates, on the rampart, 
and in other places of the camp, before the 
jircetorium, and tents of the principal officers, 
by day and night, who were changed every 
three hours. Excuhice denotes watches either 
by day or night, vigilice only by night. Guards 
placed before the gates were properly called 
stationes, on the rampart custodice. Whoever de¬ 
serted his post was punished with death. The 
watchword {symholum) was varied every night 
by the general. 

The signal was given for changing the 
watches with a trumpet (tuba) or horn, (buc- 
cina.) The other instruments of music in the 
army were the cornu, a horn bent almost 
round ; and lituus, the clarion. 

A principal part of the discipline of the 
camp consisted in exercises, walking, running, 
leaping, swimming, shooting the arrow, throw- 


DISCIPLINE, MARCHES, AND ENCAMPMENTS. 95 

ing the javelin, attacking the wooden figure 
of a man as if a real enemy, &c. 

When the general thought proper to decamp, 
every thing was done in its regular order, so 
that, all knowing their respective duties, no 
confusion arose from the size and numbers of 
the army. 

An army in close array was called agmen 
pilatum. The form of an army on march va¬ 
ried according to circumstances and the na¬ 
ture of the ground. The soldiers were train¬ 
ed with great care to observe the military pace, 
{gradus militarist They usually marched at 
the rate of twenty miles in five hours, but 
sometimes faster. 

The load which a Roman soldier carried is 
almost incredible;—victuals for fifteen or 
more days, a saw, a basket, a mattock, an axe, 
a hook, a leathern thong, a chain, a pot, &c., 
stakes usually three or four, the whole amount¬ 
ing to sixty pounds weight, besides arms. 
Under this load they marched twenty miles a 
day, sometimes more. 

There were beasts of burden for carrying 
the tents, mills, baggage, &c. 


96 


ANTIQUITIES OF EOME. 


Section IV. 

Order of Battle, Standards, Signals, Sieges, 

The Roman army was usually drawn up in 
three lines, each several rows deep—the /las- 
tati, in the first line ; the principes, in the 
second ; and the triarii, in the third ; at pro¬ 
per distances from one another. 

A maniple of each kind of troops was placed 
behind one another; so that each legion had 
ten maniples in front. There were intervals or 
spaces {vIcb) between the lines and maniples. 
The velites were placed in these spaces, or on 
the wings. 

The Roman legions were placed in the 
centre, the allies and auxiliaries on the right 
and left wings, {cornua.) The cavalry were 
sometimes placed behind the infantry, but 
most commonly on the wings. 

This arrangement was not always observed. 
Sometimes all the different kinds of troops were 
placed in the same line. 

When there were two legions, one legion 
and its allies were sometimes placed in the 
first line, and the other behind as a body of 
reserve. This was called acies duplex, and 
when there was only one line, acies simplex. 
In the time of Caesar the bravest troops were 
commonly placed in front, contrary to the 
ancient custom. 


ORDER OP BATTLE, STANDARDS, ETC. 97 

Each century, or at least each maniple, 
had its proper standard {signum, and standard- 
bearer, {signifer.) The ensign of a maniple 
was anciently a bundle of hay on the top of 
a pole, afterwards a spear with a cross-piece 
of wood on the top, sometimes the figure of a 
hand above ; and below, a small round shield 
of silver, sometimes of gold, on which were 
represented the images of the warlike deities. 
Hence the standards were called the deities of 
the legions, {numitia legionum) and worship¬ 
ped with religious adoration. The soldiers 
swore by them. 

The standards of the different divisions had 
certain letters inscribed on them, to distinguish 
the one from the other. 

The standard of the cavalry was called 
vexillum, a flag, or banner, which was a square 
piece of cloth fixed on the end of a spear. 

To lose the standard was always esteemed 
disgraceful, particularly to the standard-bear¬ 
er : sometimes a capital crime. Hence to 
animate the soldiers the standards were some¬ 
times thrown amongst the enemy. 

A silver eagle with expanded wings on the 
top of a spear, sometimes holding a thunderbolt 
in its claws, with the figure of a small chapel 
above it, was the common standard of the 
legion. 

The general was usually attended by a 
select band, {cohors 2)rcBtoria.) 

When the general, after having consulted 
9 


98 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


the auspices, had determined to lead forth his 
troops against the enemy, a red flag was dis¬ 
played on a spear, from the top of the general’s 
tent, \pretorium.) Then having called an as¬ 
sembly by the sound of a trumpet, he har¬ 
angued the soldiers, who signified their appro¬ 
bation by shouts, by raising their right hands, 
or by beating on their shields with their spears. 
After the harangue the trumpet sounded, 
which was the signal for marching. At the 
same time the soldiers called out “ to arms,” 
(ad arma.) The standards, which stood fixed 
in the ground, were pulled up, and if this were 
done easily it was reckoned a good omen ; if 
not, the contrary. The watchword (symbolum) 
was given, and in the mean time many of the 
soldiers made their wills. 

When the army approached near the enemy, 
the general, riding round the ranks, again ex¬ 
horted them to courage, and then gave the 
signal to engage, upon which all the trumpets 
sounded and the soldiers rushed forward to 
the charge with a great shout to animate one 
another, and intimidate the enemy. 

The velites first began the battle, and when 
repulsed, retreated either through the intervals 
between the files (ordines) or by the flanks of 
the army, and rallied in the rear. Then the 
liastati advanced, and if they were defeated 
they retired slowly into the intervals of the 
ranks of the principes^ who then engaged; and 
if they too were defeated, the triarii rose up, 


ORDER OF BATTLE, STANDARDS, ETC. 99 

(for hitherto they continued in a sitting pos¬ 
ture.) Thus the enemy had several fresh at¬ 
tacks to sustain. If the triarii were defeated, 
the day was lost, and a retreat was sounded. 
This was the usual manner of attack, but it 
ofter varied. 

When the Romans gained a victory, the 
soldiers wdth shouts of joy saluted their gen¬ 
eral by the title of imperator. His lictors 
wreathed their fasces with laurel, as did also 
the soldiers their spears and javelins. He im¬ 
mediately sent letters wrapped round with 
laurel to the senate to inform them of his suc¬ 
cess, and if the victory was considerable, to 
demand a triumph. If the senate approved 
they decreed a thanksgiving to the gods, and 
confirmed to the general the title of imperator, 
which he retained till his triumph, or return 
to the city. 

The Romans attacked cities and towns 
either by a sudden assault, or, if that failed, 
they tried to reduce them by a blockade. 
They first surrounded the town with troops, 
and by their missive weapons endeavored to 
clear the walls of defendants. Then joining 
their shields in the form of a tortoise, (testudo,) 
to secure themselves from the darts of the 
enemy, they came up to the gates and tried 
either to undermine the walls or scale them. 

When a place could not be taken by storm 
it was besieged. Two lines of fortification or 
intrenchments were drawn around the place. 


100 


ANTIQUITIES OP ROME. 


at some distance from one another, called the 
lines of contravallation and circumvallation, 
the one against the sallies of the townsmen, 
and the other against attacks from without. 
These lines were composed of a ditch and 
rampart, strengthened with a parapet and 
battlements, and sometimes a solid wall of 
considerable height and thickness, flanked 
with towers and forts at proper distances, 
round the whole. 

Between the lines were disposed the army 
of the besiegers. The camp was pitched in a 
convenient situation to communicate with the 
lines. 

From the inner line was raised a mount 
{agger) composed of earth, wood, hurdles, 
{crates,) and stone, which was gradually 
advanced towards the town, always increasing 
in height, till it equalled or overtopped the 
walls. It was secured by towers consisting 
of different stories, from which showers of 
darts and stones were discharged on the 
townsmen, by means of engines {tormenta) 
called catapultcB, halistcB, and scorpiones, to 
defend the work and workmen. The labor 
and industry of the Roman troops were as 
remarkable as their courage. 

There were also moveable towers which 
were pushed forward and brought back on 
wheels fixed below on the inside of the planks. 
To prevent them from being set on fire by the 
enemy, they were covered with new hides 


ORDER OF BATTLE, STANDARDS, ETC. 101 

and pieces of coarse cloth. They were of im¬ 
mense bulk, and when they could be brought 
up to the walls a place was seldom long able 
to resist. 

But the most dreadful machine of all was 
the battering ram, {aries;) a long beam, like 
the mast of a ship, and armed at one end with 
iron in the form of a ram’s head, whence its 
name. It was covered with sheds, {vinece.) 
Under them the besiegers either worked the 
ram, or tried to undermine the walls. The 
battering ram was suspended by chains fasten¬ 
ed to a beam which lay across two posts, and 
thus equally balanced, it was violently thrust 
forward, drawn back, and again pushed for¬ 
ward, until by repeated blows it had broken 
down the wall. The effects of this machine 
were prodigious. Care was taken to wrap 
the beam with wet leather, to prevent its being 
set on fire by the enemy. 

In the mean time the besieged, to frustrate 
the attempts of the besiegers, met their under¬ 
miners, with counterminers, which sometimes 
occasioned dreadful conflicts below ground. 
When they apprehended that a breach would 
be made in the wall, they erected new walls 
behind them. They employed various methods 
to destroy or weaken the force of the ram, 
and to defend themselves from the engines 
and darts of the besiegers. 

When the Romans besieged a town, and 
thought themselves sure of taking it, they used 

9 * 


102 


ANTiaUITIES OP ROME. 


solemnly to call out of it the gods under whose 
special protection the place was supposed to 
be. 

When a city was solemnly destroyed, a plough 
was drawn along where the walls had stood 


Section V. 

Military Rewards, Triumphs, Punishments, 
and Pay, 

After a victory, the general assembled his 
troops, and in the presence of the whole army 
bestowed rewards on those who had merited 
them. The highest reward was the civic 
crown, {corona civica^ given to him who had 
saved the life of a citizen, made of oak leaves. 
It was attended with particular honors. The 
person who received it wore it in the public 
shows, and sat next to the senate. 

To persons who first mounted the rampart, 
or entered the camp of the enemy, was given 
by the general a castral crown {corona castren- 
sis) of gold. To him who first scaled the 
walls of a city for an assault, was given the 
mural crown, {corona muralis ;) and to him 
who first boarded the ship of an enemy, a na¬ 
val crown, {corona navalis.) 

When an army was freed from a blockade, 
the soldiers gave to their deliverer a crown 



MILITARY REWARDS, TRIUMPHS, ETC. 103 

made of the grass which grew in the place 
where they had been blocked up. This crown, 
called graminea corona obsidionalis, was es¬ 
teemed the greatest of all military honors ex¬ 
cept a triumph. 

Golden crowns were also given to officers 
and soldiers who had displayed singular bra¬ 
very. 

There were many smaller rewards of vari¬ 
ous kinds, such as flags of various colors, 
trappings for horses, ornaments for men, 
golden chains for the neck, bracelets, &:c. 
These were conferred by the general in the 
presence of the whole army. They were kept 
with great care, and worn on public occasions. 

The spoils (spolia) taken from the enemy 
were fixed on their door-posts, or in the more 
conspicuous part of their houses. When the 
general of the Romans slew the opposing 
general, the spoils which he took {spolia 
opima) were hung up in the temple of Jupiter 
Feretrius. 

Sometimes soldiers, on account of their 
bravery, received a double share of corn; also 
double pay. 

The highest military honor which could be 
obtained in the Roman state, was a triumph, 
{triu7nphus,) or solemn procession, in which a 
victorious general and his army passed through 
the city to the Capitol. 

A triumph was decreed by the senate, and 
sometimes by the people contrary to the will 


104 


ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. 


of the senate, to the general, who in a just 
war against foreigners, and in a single battle, 
had slain above five thousand enemies of the 
republic, and by that victory had enlarged the 
limits of the empire. 

As no person could enter the city while in¬ 
vested with military command, generals, on 
the day of their triumph, were free from that 
restriction. 

The triumphal procession began from the 
Campus Martius, and went thence along to 
the city, and through the most public places of 
the city, to the Capitol. The streets were 
strewed with fiowers, and the altars smoked 
with incense. A triumphal arch of sculptured 
masonry was erected, under which the pro¬ 
cession marched. 

First, went musicians of various kinds, sing¬ 
ing and playing triumphal songs ; next were 
led the oxen to be sacrificed, having their 
horns gilded, and their heads adorned with 
fillets and garlands; then in carriages were 
brought the spoils taken from the enemy. 
The titles of the conquered nations were in¬ 
scribed on wooden frames. The captive lead¬ 
ers followed in chains, with their children and 
attendants ; after them came the lictors, hav¬ 
ing their fasces wreathed with laurel; fol¬ 
lowed by a great company of musicians and 
dancers dressed like Satyrs, and wearing 
crowns of gold, in the midst of whom was a 
pantomime, clothed in a female garb, whose 


MILITARY REWARDS, TRIUMPHS, ETC. 105 

business it was, by his looks and gestures, to 
insult the vanquished. Next followed a long 
train of persons carrying perfumes. Then 
came the general, (dux,) dressed in purple em¬ 
broidered with gold, with a crown of laurel 
on his head, a branch of laurel in his right 
hand, and in his left a finely-wrought ivory 
sceptre with an eagle on the top ; having his 
face painted with vermilion, and a golden ball 
hanging from his neck, containing some amulet 
in it, or magical preservative against envy ; 
standing in a gilded chariot adorned with 
ivory, and drawn by four white horses, some¬ 
times by elephants ; attended by his relations 
and a great crowd of citizens, all dressed in 
white. And that he might not be too much 
elated, a slave, carrying a golden crown, 
sparkling with gems, stood behind him and 
frequently whispered in his ear, “Remember 
THAT THOU ART A MAN.” After the general, 
followed the consuls and senators on foot. 
His legati and military tribunes rode by his 
side. 

The victorious army, infantry and cavalry, 
came last, all in their order crowned with 
laurel, singing their own and their general’s 
praises, but sometimes throwing out railleries 
against him ; and often exclaiming “ lo tri- 
UMPHE,” in which all the citizens as they passed 
along joined. 

The general, when he began to turn his 
chariot from the forum to the capitol, usually 


106 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


ordered the captive kings and leaders of the 
enemy, to be led to prison, and slain; and 
when he reached the capitol, he waited till 
he heard that these savage orders had been 
executed. 

Then, after having oifered up a prayer of 
thanksgiving to Jupiter and the other gods for 
his success, he commanded the victims, which 
were always white, to be sacrificed ; and de¬ 
posited his golden crown in the lap of the 
statue of Jupiter, to whom also he dedicated 
part of the spoils. After this he gave a mag- 
nificent entertainment, in the capitol, to his 
friends and the chief men of the city. After 
supper he was conducted home by the people 
with music and a great number of torches. 
The triumphal procession sometimes took up 
more than one day; that of Paulus ^Emilius, 
three. 

When the victory had been gained at sea, 
it was called a naval triumph, {triumphus na- 
valis.) 

When a victory had been gained without 
much difficulty, an inferior kind of triumph, 
called ovatio, was granted, in which the 
general entered the city on foot or on horse¬ 
back, crowned with myrtle instead of laurel, 
and instead of bullocks, sacrificed a sheep. 

After the time of Augustus the honor of a 
triumph was almost entirely confined to the 
emperors themselves, while the generals only 
received triumphal ornaments* 


MILITARY REWARDS, TRIUMPHS, ETC. 107 

The military punishments were of various 
kinds. The lighter punishments, or such as 
were attended with inconvenience, loss, or 
disgrace, were deprivation of pay, forfeiture 
of their spears, removal from their tent, pro¬ 
hibition from reclining or sitting at meals with 
the rest, standing before the prcetormm in a 
loose jacket, digging in that dress, an allow¬ 
ance of barley instead of wheat, degradation 
of rank, and dismissal from the camp. A sin¬ 
gular punishment is mentioned by Gellius, 
namely, that of letting blood. 

The more severe punishments were, to be 
beaten with rods ; to be scourged, and sold as 
a slave ; to be beaten to death with sticks, 
which was the usual punishment for theft, de¬ 
sertion, and perjury; to be stoned; to be be¬ 
headed, sometimes crucified and left unburied; 
to be stabbed with the swords of the soldiers; 
and, under the emperors, to be exposed to wild 
beasts or burned alive. 

When a number had been guilty of the same 
crime, as in the case of mutiny, every tenth 
man was selected for punishment by lot, which 
was called decimatio; or else the ringleaders 
only were punished. 

The Roman soldiers at first received no pay 
{stipendium) from the public, but every one 
served at his own expense. Pay was first 
granted to the soldiers, A. U. 347. It was, 
however, very inconsiderable ; two oholi, or 
three asses (about 4i cents) a day to a foot 


108 


ANTIQUITIES OF ROME, 


soldier ; double, to a centurion; and triple, fa 
an eques. Julius Caesar doubled the pay. It 
was afterwards increased still more. 

Besides his pay, each soldier was furnished 
with clothes, and received a certain allowance 
{dimensium) of corn, commonly four bushels a 
month; the centurions, double ; and the equites, 
triple. But for these things a part of their 
pay was deducted. The allies were clothed 
and paid by their own states, but received 
their allowance of corn from the republic. 
The soldiers usually dressed their own victuals, 
and took food twice a day, at dinner and 
supper. 

When the soldiers had served out their time, 
the foot twenty years, and the horse ten, they 
were called emeriti^ and obtained their dis¬ 
charge, (missiaJ) 


Section VI. 

Different hinds of Ships, with their PartSf 
Ornaments, 

It was long before the Romans paid any at¬ 
tention to naval affairs. They at first had 
nothing but boats made of thick planks. They 
are said to have taken the model of their first 
ship of war from a Carthaginian vessel which 
happened to be stranded on their coast. But 



DIFFERENT KINDS OF SHIPS, ETC. 109 

it is more probable that their first ships of war 
were built from the model of those of Antium, 
which, after the reduction of that city, were 
brought to Rome, A. U. 417. It was not, how¬ 
ever, till the first Punic war, A. U. 497, that 
they distinguished themselves at sea. 

Ships of war were called naves longce, be¬ 
cause they were of a longer shape than ships 
of burden, {naves onerarice^ which were more 
deep and round. The’ ships of war were pro¬ 
pelled chiefly by oars, the ships of burden by 
sails. 

The ships of war were variously named 
from the rows or banks of oars {ordines re- 
morum) which they contained. Those which 
had two rows were called hirenies; three, tri¬ 
remes ; four, quadremes; and five, quinque- 
remes. There were seldom any ships of more 
than five banks of oars, yet they were some¬ 
times constructed with more than that num¬ 
ber, and we read of one which contained six¬ 
teen banks. 

The rowers were placed one above another 
in different stages or benches on one side of 
the ship, not immediately over one another, but 
in the form of a quincunx^ thus, The 

oars of the lowest bench were short, and those 
of the other benches increased in length in 
proportion to their height above the water. 

There were three classes of rowers; the 
first sat in the highest part of the ship, next to 
the stern; the second, in the middle ; the third, 
10 


110 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


in the lowest part of the ship, next to the 
prow. 

Ships contrived for lightness and expedition 
{naves actuarial had but one rank of oars on 
each side, or, at most, two. But the most re¬ 
markable of these were the naves Lihurnce, a 
kind of light galleys used by the Liburnians, 
a people of Dalmatia addicted to piracy. To 
ships of this kind Augustus was in a great 
measure indebted for Ins victory over Antony 
at Actium. Hence, after that time, the name 
of naves Lihurnce was given to all swiftly-sail¬ 
ing vessels, and most of the ships were built of 
that construction. 

Each ship had a name peculiar to itself, 
painted on its prow,. (called parasemon, its 
sign, or insigne,) and as its tutelary god was 
on its stern, that part of the ship w’as called 
tutela, and held sacred by the mariners. There 
supplications and treaties were made. 

Ships of burden had a basket suspended to 
the top of their mast as their sign. There 
was an ornament in the stern, and sometimes 
on the prow, made of wood, like the tail of a 
fish called aplustre, from which was erected a 
staff or pole with a riband or streamer on the 
top. 

The ship of the commander of a fleet was 
distinguished by a red flag, and by three lights, 
at night. 

The chief parts of a ship and its append¬ 
ages were carina, the heel or bottom; statu- 


DIFFERENT KINDS OF SHIPS, ETC. Ill 

mina^ the ribs or pieces of timber which 
Strengthened the sides; prora^ the prow or 
fore-part; puppis, the stern or hind part; 
alveus, the hold or hollow part; sentina, the 
pump, or rather the bilge or bottom of the 
hold, where the water which leaked into the 
ship remained till it was pumped out. In or¬ 
der to keep out the water, ships were covered 
with wax and pitch, {ceratcB.) On the sides 
(kttera) were holes (foramina) for the oars, 
(remi,) and seats (sedilia or transtra) for the 
rowers, (remiges.) IJach oar was tied to a 
piece of wood, called scalmus, by thongs or 
strings. The place where the oars were put 
when the rowers were done working was 
callexi casteria. 

On the stern was the rudder (gubernaculum) 
and the pilot (guhernator) who directed it. 
Some ships had two rudders, one on each end, 
and two prows, so that they could be propelled 
either way without turning them. 

On the middle of the ship was erected the 
mast, (malus,) which was raised when the ship 
left the harbor, and taken down when it ap¬ 
proached land. On the mast were the sail- 
yards, (antenncB,) and the sails (vela) fastened 
by ropes, (funes or rvdentes.) The sails were 
usually white, as being thought more lucky, 
but sometimes colored. 

The rigging and tackling of a ship, its sails, 
oars, ropes, &c., were called armamenta. 

Ships of war had their prows armed with a 


112 


ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. 


sharp beak {rostrum) which usually had three 
teeth or points. 

Ships when about to engage had towers 
erected on them, whence stones and missive 
weapons were discharged from engines, called 
propugnacula. 

The anchor {anchora) was at first of stone, 
or wood filled with lead, but afterwards of 
iron. The plummet for sounding depths was 
called holis. The ropes by which a ship was 
tied to land were called retinacula. 

The ballast {saburra) was of sand and other 
heavy substances. 

Ships were built of fir, alder, cedar, pine, 
cypress, and sometimes even of green wood; 
so that, on one occasion, a number of ships 
were put on the stocks, completely equipped, 
and launched, in forty-five days after the tim¬ 
ber was cut down in the forest. 

There was a place at Rome beyond the Ti¬ 
ber where ships lay and were built, called 
navalia^ a dock. 

There was great labor in launching the 
ships, for as the ancients seldom sailed in win¬ 
ter, their ships during that time were drawn 
up on land. They were drawn to sea by ropes 
and levers, with rollers placed below. 


9 


MARINERS, NAVAL OFFICERS, ETC. 


113 


Section VII. 

MarinerSy Naval Officers, and Naval Engage- 
ments. 

As the Romans quickly built fleets, they as 
speedily manned them. Freedmen and slaves 
were employed as mariners or rowers, who 
were called socii navales. The citizens and 
allies were obliged to furnish a certain num¬ 
ber of these, according to their fortune. 

The legionary soldiers, at first, used to fight 
at sea as well as on land. But when the Ro¬ 
mans came to have regular and constant fleets, 
there was a separate kind of soldiers raised 
for the marine service, called classiarii, but this 
service was esteemed less honorable than that 
of the legionary soldiers. The rowers were 
occasionally armed. 

The admiral of the whole fleet was called 
dux classis or prcefectus classis, and his ship 
navis prcetoria. At first the consuls and prfe- 
tors commanded the fleets. 

The commanders of each ship were called 
navarchii; the master of a trading vessel, nau- 
clerus. The person who steered the ship was 
called gubemator, the pilot; sometimes, also, 
magister. He sat at the helm, on the top of 
the stern, dressed in a particular manner, 
and gave directions about the management 
and course of the ship. It was his duty to 


114 


ANTiaUITIES OP ROME, 


know the signs of the weather, to be acquaint¬ 
ed with ports and places, and particularly to 
observe the winds and stars; for as the an¬ 
cients knew not the use of the compass, they 
were directed in their voyages in the night time 
by the stars, and in the day by the coasts and 
islands which they knew, so that they did not 
dare to venture far from land. 

The hortator orpausarius had command over 
the rowers. The helciai'ii were those who 
hauled or pulled the ropes. These animated 
one another with a loud cry, {nauticus clamor.) 

Before a fleet {classis) set out to sea, it was 
solemnly reviewed like an army, prayers were 
made, and victims sacrificed, auspices consult¬ 
ed ; and if any unlucky omen happened, as a 
person sneezing on the left, or swallows alight¬ 
ing on the ships, the voyage was suspended. 

The mariners when they set sail or reached 
the harbor, decked their stern with garlands. 

The signal for embarking was given with 
the trumpet. They embarked in a certain or¬ 
der, the mariners first, and then the soldiers. 
They also sailed in a certain order, the light 
vessels foremost, then the fleet or ships of war, 
and after them the ships of burden. They 
consulted the omens as they approached the 
place of their destination, in the same manner 
as at their departure. When they reached 
the shore, and landed the troops, prayers and 
sacrifices were again made. 

Harbors {portus) were strongly fortified, es- 


MARINERS, NAVAL OFFICERS, ETC. 115 

pecially at the entrance. There was usually 
a watch-tower {pharos) with lights to direct 
the course of ships in the night time. 

Fleets about to engage in battle, were ar¬ 
ranged in a manner similar to armies on land. 
Certain ships were placed in the centre, others 
in the right wing, and others in the left, and 
some as a reserve. They were generally dis¬ 
posed in the form of a semicircle. 

Before the engagement, sacrifices and pray¬ 
ers were offered, and the admiral sailed round 
the fleet in a light galley, and exhorted the 
men. The soldiers and sailors made ready for 
action, by furling the sails and adjusting the 
rigging, for they never chose to fight but in 
calm weather. A red flag was displayed from 
the ship of the admiral as a signal to engage. 
The trumpets in all the ships were sounded, 
and a shout raised by all the crews. 

The combatants endeavored to sink or disa¬ 
ble the ships of the enemy by sweeping off the 
oars, or by striking them with their beaks. 
They grappled with them by means of certain 
machines called crows, {corvi,) iron hooks, 
{ferrecB manus^ grappling irons, {harpagones;) 
and fought as on land. They sometimes em¬ 
ployed fire-ships or threw firebrands' and pots 
filled with sulphur, coals, and other combus¬ 
tibles. 

In sieges they joined vessels together, and 
erected on them various engines; or sunk ves¬ 
sels to block up their harbors. 


116 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


The ships of the victorious fleet when they 
returned home had their prows decked with 
laurel and resounded with triumphant music. 

The prizes distributed after a victory at sea 
were much the same as on land; also naval 
punishments, provisions, &c. 

The trading vessels of the ancients were in 
general much inferior in size to those of the 
moderns. A number are mentioned which 
were considered large, and which were of 
about fifty-six tons burden. There were, how¬ 
ever, some ships of enormous bulk. 


CHAPTER IV. 
Religion op the Romans. 


Section I. 

Roman Deities, and Sacred Places, 

The religion of the Romans was idolatry in 
its grossest and most extensive acceptation. 
Their gods were very numerous, and divided 
into the great celestial deities {DU Majorum 
gentium) and the inferior deities, {DU Minorum 
gentium.) The great celestial deities were 




ROMAN DEITIES, AND SACRED PLACES. 117 

twelve in number, Jupiter, Neptune, Mars, 
Apollo, Vulcan, Mercury, who were masculine 
deities; and Juno, Minerva, or Pallas, Venus, 
Ceres, Diana, and Vesta, who were feminine. 

Among the great celestial deities were also 
included the select deities, {dii selecti,) who 
were eight in number.* 

The inferior deities were of various kinds. 
The Dii Indigetes were heroes, ranked among 
the gods on account of their virtues and merits. 
The Semones were inferior deities, superior to 
men and inferior to gods, as the word {semi 
homines, half-men) indicates. 

The Romans also worshipped the virtues and 
affections of the mind, as Piety, Faith, Hope, 
Concord, Fame, <J^., even vices and diseases ; 
and under the emperors, foreign deities, as Isis, 
Osiris, Anuhis, of the Egyptians; also the 
winds and tempests. 

They worshipped certain gods that they 
might do them good, and others that they 
might not harm them. There was both a good 
and bad Jupiter; the former was called Dijovis 
or Diespiter ; the latter, Vejovis or Vedius. 

The places dedicated to the worship of the 
gods were called temples, {templa, fana, de- 
luhra, sacraria, cedes sacrce,) and consecrated 
by the Augurs. A temple built by Augustus, 
and dedicated to all the gods, was called Pan¬ 
theon. 

* For a description of these and other deities of the Greeks 
and Romans, see the mythology at the end of this work. 


118 


ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. 


A small temple or chapel was called sacel- 
lum or cBdicula. A wood or thicket of trees 
consecrated to religious worship was called 
lucus, a grove. The gods were supposed to 
frequent woods and fountains. 

The walls of cities were considered sacred, 
but not the gates. The gates, however, were 
esteemed inviolable, {sdncta.) 

A place was held sacred where a dead body 
was buried, but not where it was burned, 
Altars and temples afforded an asylum or 
place of refuge among the Romans, as well 
as most other ancient nations; chiefly to slaves 
from the cruelty of their masters, and to in¬ 
solvent debtors and criminals, when it was 
considered impious to touch them ; but some¬ 
times they put fire and combustible materials 
around the place, that the person might appear 
to be forced away, not by men, but by a god, 
or shut up the temple and unroofed it, that he 
might perish in the open air. 


Section II. 

Ministers of Religion, 

The ministers of religion {ministri saerorum) 
among the Romans did not form a distinct 
order from the other citizens. They were 
usually chosen from the most honorable men 



MINISTERS OP religion. 


119 


in the state. Some of them were common to 
all the gods ; others the priests of a particular 
deity. 

The pontifices judged in all cases relating to 
sacred things ; and in cases where there was 
no written law, they prescribed what regula¬ 
tions they thought proper. Their authority 
was very great. It particularly belonged to 
them to see that the inferior priests did their 
duty. The whole number of pontifices was 
called collegium. This number, at first, con¬ 
sisted of four, but afterwards increased to 
fifteen. 

The chief of the pontifices was called Pon- 
tifex Maximus, high priest. He was created 
by the people, while the other pontifices were 
chosen by the college. The pontifex maximus 
was an office of great dignity and power. He 
was supreme judge and arbiter in all religious 
matters. All the other priests were subject to 
him. He could hinder any of them from 
leaving the city. 

The presence of the pontifex maximus was 
requisite in public and solemn religious acts, 
as when magistrates vowed games, &c. He 
attended at the comitia; especially when 
priests were created, that he might inaugurate 
them. 

The pontifex maximus and his college judged 
concerning marriages, and had the care of 
regulating the year and the public calendar. 

For a long time the pontifex maximus drew 


120 


ANTIQUITIES OP ROME. 


up a short account of the public transactions 
of every year, in a book, and exposed this 
register in an open place in his house, where 
the people might come and read it. These 
records were called annales, or commentarii. 

The pontijices wore a robe bordered with 
purple, a woollen cap in the form of a cone, 
with a small rod wrapped round with wool, and 
a tuft or tassel on the top of it, called apex. 

In ancient times the pontifex maximus was > 
not permitted to leave Italy. This office was 
for life. 

The Augures, augurs or soothsayers, were 
at first three in number, but were afterwards 
increased to fifteen. Their office was to ex¬ 
plain all omens, foretell future events from the 
flight, chirping, or feeding of birds, and other 
appearances. They were a college of priests 
of the greatest authority at Rome, because 
nothing of importance was done respecting 
the public, either at home or abroad, in peace 
or in war, without consulting them. The chief 
of the augurs was called magister collegii. 

The augurs enjoyed this singular privilege, 
that of whatever crime they were guilty, they 
could not be deprived of their offices, because 
they were intrusted with the secrets of the 
empire. 

The badges of the augurs were, a kind of 
robe, {trahea) striped with purple, a cap of 
conical shape, like that of the pontifices, and 
a crooked staff, which they carried in their 


MINISTERS OF RELIGION. 


121 


ri^ht hand to mark out the quarters of the 
heavens. 

An augur made his observations on the 
heavens usually in the dead of night, or else 
about twilight. 

The Haruspices examined the victims and 
their entrails, after they were sacrificed, and 
thus derived omens of futurity, as well as from 
the smoke, flame, and other circumstances at¬ 
tending the sacrifice ; as if the victim came to 
the altar without resistance, stood there quietly, 
fell by one stroke, bled freely, &c. These were 
favorable signs. They also explained prodi¬ 
gies. Their office resembled that of the augurs, 
but they were not esteemed so honorable. Of 
what number the college of haruspices con¬ 
sisted is uncertain. Their chief was called 
summus haruspex. 

Quindecemviri were, as their name imports, 
fifteen in number. They had charge of the 
{Sibylline books, inspected them by the appoint¬ 
ment of the senate in dangerous conjunctures ; 
and performed the sacrifices which they en¬ 
joined. It belonged to them in particular to 
celebrate the secular games, and those of 
Apollo. They are said to have been instituted 
on the following occasion. 

A certain woman, named Amalthaea, from a 
foreign country, is said to have come to Tar- 
quin the Proud, wishing to sell nine books of 
Sibylline, or prophetic oracles. But upon 
Tarquin’s refusal to give her the price which 

n 


122 


ANTiaUITISS OF ROME. 


slie asked, she went away and burned three of 
them. Returning soon after, she demanded 
the same price for the remaining six. Where¬ 
upon being ridiculed by the king, as a sense¬ 
less old woman, she went and burned three 
more; and coming back still demanded the 
same price for the three which remained. Tar- 
quin, surprised at the strange conduct of the 
woman, consulted the augurs what to do. 
They, regretting the loss of the books which 
had been destroyed, advised the king to give 
the price required. The woman, therefore, 
having delivered the books, and having de¬ 
sired that they should be carefully kept, disap¬ 
peared and was never afterwards seen. Tar- 
quin committed the care of these Sibylline 
books {lihri sibyllini) to two men appointed for 
this purpose, and these were subsequently in¬ 
creased to fifteen. 

The chief of the quindecemviri was called 
magister collegii. 

These sibylline books were supposed to con¬ 
tain the fate of the Roman empire, and there¬ 
fore in public danger or calamity, the keepers 
of them were frequently ordered by the senate 
to inspect them. They were kept in a stone 
chest below ground in the temple of Jupiter 
in the Capitol. But the Capitol being burned 
in the Marsic war, A. U. 070, these books were 
destroyed with it; whereupon ambassadors 
were sent everywhere to collect the oracles of 
the Sibyls. From the various Sibylline verses 


MINISTERS OP RELIGION. 


123 


thus collected the quindecemviri made out new 
books. 

The quindecemviri were exempted from the 
obligation of serving in the army, and from 
other offices in the city. Their priesthood was 
for life. 

The Septemviri prepared the sacred feasts 
at games, processions, and on other solemn 
occasions. 

The PontificeSf Augures, Septemviri, and 
Quindecemviri were called “ the four colleges 
of priests.” 

The other fraternities of priests were less 
considerable, although composed of persons 
of distinguished rank. 

The Fratres Ambavales, twelve in number, 
offered up sacrifices for the fertility of the 
ground. Their office was for life, and con¬ 
tinued even in captivity and exile. They 
wore a crown made of the ears of corn, and 
a white woollen wreath around their temples. 

The Curiones were priests who performed 
the public sacred rites, in each curia, thirty in 
number. 

The Feciales* were priests employed in de¬ 
claring war and concluding peace. The Fe~ 
ciaJis, who took the oath in the name of the 
Roman people in concluding a treaty of peace, 
was called Pater Patralus, The number of 
the Feciales is supposed to have been twenty. 
They judged concerning every thing which 
* See Chap. III. Sec. I. 


124 


ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. 


related to the proclaiming of war and the 
making of treaties. They were sent to the 
enemy to demand redress of injuries. They 
always carried in their hands, or wreathed 
round their temples, vervain, a kind of sacred 
grass, plucked from a particular place in the 
Capitol, in which it grew. 

The Sodales were priests appointed to pre¬ 
serve the sacred rites of the Sabines. 

The Rex Sacrorum was a priest appointed 
after the expulsion of Tarquin to perform those 
sacred rites which the kings themselves had 
before performed,—an office of small import¬ 
ance, and subject to the pontifex maximus, as 
all the other priesthoods were. Before a per¬ 
son was admitted to this priesthood he was 
obliged to resign any other office he bore. His 
wife was called Regina, or queen. 

The priests of particular gods were called 
Flamines. The chief of these were, the Fla- 
men Dialis, the priest of Jupiter, who was dis¬ 
tinguished by a lictor, and had a right from his 
office of coming into the senate ; the Flamen 
Martialis, the priest of wars; and Flamen 
Quirinalis, the priest of Romulus. The Fla- 
mines wore a purple robe called Icena, and a 
conical cap. 

The Flamen of Jupiter was an office of 
great dignity, but subjected to many restric¬ 
tions, as that he should not ride on horseback, 
nor stay one night without the city, nor take 
an oath. His wife (Jlaminica) was also under 


MINISTERS OF RELIGION. 


125 


particular restrictions, and could not be di¬ 
vorced ; and when she died, the Jlamen resigned 
his office, because he could not perform cer¬ 
tain rites without her assistance. 

The Scilii were the priests of Mars, twelve 
in number, so called because on solemn occa¬ 
sions they went through the city dancing, 
dressed in an embroidered tunic, bound with 
a brazen belt and a toga prcetexta, having on 
their head a high conical cap, with a sword 
by their side, a spear in their right hand, and 
one of the ancilia, or shields of Mars, in their 
left. They went through the public parts of 
the city singing sacred songs. 

The Luperci were priests of Pan, so called 
from lupus, a wolf, because Pan was the god 
who was supposed to keep the wolves from 
the sheep. The place where he was wor¬ 
shipped was called Lupercal, and his festival 
Lupercalia, which was celebrated in February, 
at which time the Luperci ran up and down 
the city nearly naked, having thongs in their 
hands, with which they struck those whom 
they met. 

The Potitii and Pinarii were priests of Her¬ 
cules : the former presided at the sacrifices of 
Hercules ; the latter acted as assistants. 

The Gain were the priests of Cyhele, the 
mother of the gods. They were called also 
Curetes, and Coryhantes, and their chief, Archi- 
gallus. They carried round the image of Cy- 
bele, with the gestures of mad people, rolling 
11 * 


126 


ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. 


their heads, beating their breasts to the sound 
of their flute, drums, and cymbals, cutting 
their arms, and uttering dreadful predictions. 
They annually went round the villages asking 
alms, which all other priests were prohibited 
from doing. The rites of Cybele were dis¬ 
graced by great indecency of expression. 

The Virgines Vestales, vestal virgins, w’ere 
consecrated to the worship of Vesta, at first 
four in number, afterwards six. They were 
selected for admission between the ages of six 
and sixteen years, and were to be free from 
any bodily defect, and their parents must be 
alive and free-born citizens. They were bound 
to their ministry for thirty years. For the 
first ten they learned the sacred rites ; for the 
next ten they performed them ; and for the 
last ten they taught the younger virgins. After 
this they might leave the temple and marry, 
which, however, was seldom done. 

The office of the vestal virgins was to keep 
the sacred fire always burning, watching it 
in the night-time alternately, and whoever al¬ 
lowed it to go out, was scourged by the ponti- 
fex maximuSf or by his order. This accident 
was always esteemed unlucky, and expiated 
by offering extraordinary sacrifices. The fire 
was rekindled, not from another fire, but from 
the rays of the sun, in which manner it was 
renewed every year on the first of March. 
These vestals also kept the secret pledge of 
the empire, supposed to have been the Palla- 


MINISTERS OP RELIGION. 


127 


dium^ or the Penates of the Roman people, 
kept in the innermost recess of the temple, 
and visible only to the Vestalis maxima. The 
Vestal Virgins wore a long white robe bor¬ 
dered with purple, their head decorated with 
fillets and ribands. They enjoyed singular 
honors and privileges. The consuls and prae¬ 
tors, when they met them in the street, 
lowered their fasces, and went out of their 
way to show them respect. They could free 
a criminal from punishment if they met him 
accidentally. Deeds and wills were commit¬ 
ted to their care. 

If any Vestal violated her vow of chastity, 
after being tried and sentenced by the Ponti- 
fees she was buried alive with funeral solem¬ 
nities, and her paramour scourged to death in 
the Forum. 

The priests who had children, employed 
them to assist in performing sacred rites; but 
those who had no children, procured free-born 
boys and girls to serve them. Those who 
took care of the temples were called j^ditui; 
those who brought the victims to the altar and 
slew them, Popce. 


128 


ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. 


Section III. 

Religious Rites, Prayers, Vows, Sacrifices, Pu¬ 
rifications, and Oaths. 

The Romans were, as a people, remarkably 
attached to their religion, and scrupulously at¬ 
tentive to its rites and ceremonies. 

The worship (cultus) of the gods consisted 
chiefly in prayers, vows, and sacriflces. 

No act of religious worship was performed 
without prayer, (oratio, precatio, preces.) The 
words were thought of the greatest importance, 
and varied according to the nature of the sac¬ 
rifice. In the day-time the gods were sup¬ 
posed to remain in heaven, but to go up and 
down the earth during the night, to observe 
the actions of men. The stars were sup¬ 
posed to do the contrary. Those who prayed 
to the gods, stood usually with their heads 
covered, looking towards the east; a priest 
pronounced the words before them ; they fre¬ 
quently touched the altars or the knees of the 
images of the gods, turning themselves round 
in a circle, and also prostrated themselves on 
the ground. 

With the same solemnity they offered up 
vows, (vota.) They vowed temples, games, 
sacrifices, gifts, a certain part of the plunder 
of a city, &:c., also what was called ver sa¬ 
crum, that is, all the cattle which were pro- 


RELIGIOUS RITES, PRAYERS, VOWS, ETC. 129 

duced from the first of March to the end of 
April. Sometimes they wrote their vows, and 
sealed them up, and fastened them with wax 
to the knees of the images of the gods ; that 
place being supposed to be the seat of mercy. 

The person who made vows was bound, 
when he obtained his wish, to make good his 
vow. Those saved from shipwreck hung up 
their clothes in the temple of Neptune, with 
a picture {tabula votiva) representing the cir¬ 
cumstances of their danger and escape. So 
soldiers, when discharged, suspended their 
arms to Mars ; gladiators their swords to Her¬ 
cules ; and poets, when they finished a work, 
the fillets of their hair to Apollo. 

Thanksgivings {gratiarum actiones) were al¬ 
ways made to the gods for benefits received, 
and upon all fortunate events. When a gen¬ 
eral had gained a signal victory, a thanksgiving 
(supplicatio) was decreed by the senate to .be 
made in all the temples, and what was called 
lectistei'nium^ when couches were spread for 
the gods, as if about to feast, and their images 
taken down from their pedestals, and placed 
upon these couches around the altars, which 
were loaded with the richest dishes. 

In sacrifices (sacrificia) it was necessary that 
those who offered them should come ehaste 
and pure ; that they should bathe themselves, 
be dressed in white robes, and crowned with 
the leaves of that tree which was thought 
most acceptable to the god whom they wor- 


130 • 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


shipped. Sometimes they came in the garb of 
suppliants, with dishevelled hair, loose robes, 
and barefooted. Vows and prayers were al¬ 
ways made before the sacrifice. 

It was necessary that the animals to be sac¬ 
rificed {JiosticB or mctimce) should be without spot 
and blemish, never yoked for labor, and chosen 
from a fiock or herd approved by the priests, 
and marked with chalk. They were adorned 
with fillets, ribands, and crowns, and their horns 
were gilded. 

The victim was led to the altar by the popce, 
with their clothes tucked up, and naked to the 
waist. The animal was led by a slack rope, 
that it might not seem to be brought by force, 
which was reckoned a bad omen. For the 
same reason it was allowed to stand loose be¬ 
fore the altar, and it was a very bad omen if 
it fied away. Then after silence was ordered, 
a salted cake {mola salta or fruges saltce) w^as 
sprinkled on the head of the beast, and frank¬ 
incense and wine {libatio) poured between its 
horns, the priest having first tasted the wine 
himself, and given it to be tasted by those that 
stood near to him. The priest plucked the 
highest hairs betw^een the horns, and threw 
them into the fire. The victim was struck by 
the cultrarius, with an axe or mallet, {malleus^ 
by the order of the priest. Then it was 
stabbed with knives, and the blood being 
caught in goblets, was poured on the altar. 
It was then flayed and dissected. Sometimes 


RELIGIOUS RITES, PRAYERS, VOWS, ETC. 131 

it was all burned and called holocausium, but 
usually only a part; what remained was divi¬ 
ded between the priest and the person who 
offered the sacrifice. 

The haruspices inspected the entrails, and if 
the signs were favorable they were said to 
have offered up an acceptable sacrifice, or to 
have pacified the gods ; if not, another victim 
was offered up, and sometimes several. 

The liver was the part chiefly inspected, and 
supposed to give the most certain presages of 
futurity. It was divided into two parts, called 
pars familiaris and pars hostilis. From the 
former they conjectured what was to happen 
to themselves, and from the latter what was 
to happen to an enemy. 

After the haruspices had inspected the en¬ 
trails, the parts which fell to the gods were 
sprinkled with meal, wine, and frankincense, 
and burned on the altar; or when in sacrifi¬ 
cing to marine deities, they were thrown into 
the sea. 

When the sacrifice was finished, the priest 
having washed his hands and uttered certain 
prayers, again made a libation, and then the 
people were dismissed in a set form of words. 
After the sacrifice followed a feast. 

The sacrifices offered to the celestial gods 
differed from those offered to the infernal dei¬ 
ties in several particulars. The victims sac¬ 
rificed to the former were white, their neck 
was bent upward, the knife was applied from 


132 


ANTIQUITIES OP HOME. 


above, and the blood was sprinkled on the altar 
or caught in goblets; the victims offered to the 
infernal gods were black, they were killed with 
their faces bent downward, {pronce,) the knife 
was applied from below, and the blood was 
poured into a ditch. Those who sacrificed 
to the celestial gods were clothed in white, 
bathed the whole body, made libations by pour¬ 
ing the liquor out of the cup, and prayed with 
the palms of their hands raised to heaven; 
those who sacrificed to the infernal gods were 
clothed in black, only sprinkled their body with 
water, made libations by turning the hands, 
and threw the cups into the fire, and prayed 
with their palms turned downward, and stri¬ 
king the ground with their feet. 

Human sacrifices were sometimes offered 
among the Romans. By an ancient law, per¬ 
sons guilty of certain crimes, treachery or se¬ 
dition, were devoted to Pluto and the infernal 
gods ; and therefore any one might slay them 
with impunity. Men were sometimes thrown 
into the sea, as victims to Neptune. 

A place reared for offering sacrifices was 
called ara or altare, an altar. A secret place 
in the temple, where none but the priests en¬ 
tered, was called adytum. 

At the time when the censors had finished 
the census, an expiatory or purifying sacrifice 
was made of a sow, a sheep, and a bull, which 
were carried round the whole assembly, and 
then slain; thus the people were said to be 


DIVINATION AND AUGURY. 


133 


purified. This sacrifice was called suovetau- 
rilia. 

At funerals, also, when the remains of the 
deceased were laid in the tomb, those present 
were three times sprinkled by a priest with 
pure water, from a branch of olive or laurel, 
to purify them. There were many other puri¬ 
fications among the Romans. 

The Romans in solemn oaths {jurajuranda) 
held a flint-stone in their right hand, and in¬ 
vited awful imprecations upon themselves if 
they perjured themselves. The most solemn 
oath of the Romans was by their faith or honor. 

The sacramentum was the solemn military 
oath. 


Section IV. 

Divination and Augury, 

The difference between the terms divination 
(divinatio) and augury (augurium) is, that the 
former is general and indefinite, while the lat¬ 
ter is specific and has its fixed reasons. But 
this distinction is not always clearly made by 
the aneient authors. 

The tokens {signce) of futurity were chiefly de¬ 
rived from five sources—1. From appearances 
in the heavens, as thunder, lightning, meteors, 
as for instance whether the thunder came from 
12 



134 


ANTiaUlTlES OP ROME. 


the right or left;—2. From the singing or chat¬ 
tering of birds, as the raven, the crow, owl, 
cock; and the flying of others, as the eagle, 
vulture, &c.;—3. From the manner in which 
chickens fed, as, if they did not eat voracious¬ 
ly, it was esteemed an unfortunate omen;— 
4. From beasts crossing the way, or appearing 
in n, strange place; —5. From unusual acci¬ 
dents, such as sneezing, stumbling, spilling salt 
upon the table, &c. 

To take the auguries from appearances in 
the heavens, or from birds, the augur took his 
station on an elevated place, {arx,) offered up 
sacrifices, uttered a solemn prayer, with his 
head covered, and his face turned to the east, 
and with his rod (lituus) determined the re¬ 
gions of the heavens from east to west, and 
then awaited the omen. 

Among the Romans, omens on the left were 
generally esteemed lucky, but not always ; 
while the Greeks considered the right as the 
propitious quarter. 

Future events were also prognosticated by 
drawing lots, {sortes ;)* by observing the stars, 
{astrologia or Bahylonica doctrina;) by inter¬ 
preting dreams, {conjectura somniorum,) &lc. 
Persons disordered in their mind were sup¬ 
posed to possess the faculty of presaging future 
events. 

The auspices either of appearances in the 
heavens, or inspection of birds, were always 
taken at the time of the comitia ; as also 


FESTIVALS OF THE ROMANS. 


135 


sometimes that of feeding chickens. And so 
scrupulous were the ancient Romans about 
this matter, that if the augurs, at any time af¬ 
terwards, upon recollection, declared that there 
had been any informality in taking the aus¬ 
pices, the magistrates who had been at that 
time elected, were obliged to resign their of¬ 
fice, even several months after they had enter¬ 
ed upon it. 


Section V. 

Festivals of the Romans. 

Days among the Romans were either dedi¬ 
cated to religious purposes, (dies festi,) or as¬ 
signed to ordinary business, (dies profesti.) 
There were some da^s in which a part was 
devoted to one and a part to the other, called 
dies intersici, ‘ half holidays.’ On the dies festi, 
sacrifices were performed, feasts and games 
were celebrated, or at least there was a ces¬ 
sation from business. 

Public Ferice, or festivals, were either stated 
(statce) or annually fixed on a certain day, by 
the magistrates or priests, (conceptivce,) or oc¬ 
casionally appointed by the consul, prmtor, or 
pontifex maximus^ (imperativce.) 

The stated festivals were chiefly the follow 
ing:— 



136 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


1. In January, Agonalia^ in honor of Janus, 
on the 9th, and also on the 20th of May; Car- 
mentalia, on the 11th. This was a half holi¬ 
day. 

2. In February, Faunaliaj to the god Fau- 
nus, on the 13th; Lupercalia, to Pan, on the 
15th; Quirinalia, to Romulus, on the 17th; 
Feralia, on the 21st; Regifugium, in commem¬ 
oration of the flight of king Tarquin, on the 
24th; Equiria, horse-races, in the Campus 
Martius, in honor of Mars, on the 27th. 

3. In March, Matronalia, celebrated by the 
matrons on the first day, when presents were 
given by husbands to their wives ; Testum An- 
ciliorum, on the same day and three following, 
when the shields of Mars were carried through 
the city by the Salii; Liberalia, to Bacchus, 
on the 18th, when young men first assumed 
the toga virilis, or manly gown; Quinqiietrus, 
in honor of Minerva, oft the 19th, continuing 
for five days; Hilaria, in honor of the mother 
of the gods, on the 25th. 

4. In April, Megalesia, to the great mother 
of the gods, on the 4th or 5th; Cerealia^ to 
Ceres, on the 9th; Fordicidia^ on the 15th, 
when pregnant cows were sacrificed; Palilia^ 
to Pales, on the 21st, on which day the city of 
Rome was founded; Rohigalia, to Robigus, 
that he would preserve the corn from mildew 
on the 25th ; Floralia, to Flora, begun on the 
28th, and continued to the end of the month, 
attended with great indecency. 


FESTIVALS OF THE ROMANS. 


137 


5. In May, on the Kalends (or first day) 
were performed the sacred rites of the Bona 
Dea, by the Vestal Virgins and women only, 
in the house of the consul and prsBtors, for the 
safety of the people ; Compitalia, to the Lares 
in the public ways, in which boys were an¬ 
ciently sacrificed to Mania, the mother of the 
Lares, on the 2d; Lemuria^ on the 9th, to the 
LemureSj ghosts or spectres in the dark, which 
were believed to be the souls of their deceased 
friends; Festum mercatorum, the festival of 
the merchants, when they offered sacred rites 
to Mercury, on the 13th; VulcanaUay in honor 
of Vulcan, on the 22d. 

6. In June, on the Kalends, were the festi¬ 
vals of the goddess Carna; of Mars Extra- 
muraneus, whose temple was without the 
walls; and of Juno Moneta ; on the 4th, of 
Bellona; on the 7th, Ludi Piscatorii ; on the 
9th, Vestalia, to Vesta; on the 10th, Matralia. 

7. In July, on the Kalends, people removed 
from hired lodgings ; on the 4ih was the festi¬ 
val of Female Fortune, in memory of Corio- 
lanus withdrawing his army from the city; on 
the 5th, Ludi Appollinares ; on the 12th, the 
birth-day of Julius Caesar; on the 15th, the 
grand procession of the Equites ; on the 16th, 
Dies allienis, on which the Romans were de¬ 
feated by the Gauls ; on the 23d, Neptunalia, 
to Neptune. 

8. In August, on the 13th, the festival of Di¬ 
ana ; on the 19th, Yinalia, when a libation of 

12 * 


138 


ANTiaUITIES OP ROME. 


new wine was made to Jupiter and Venus; 
on the 18th, Consualia, games in honor of Con- 
sus, the god of council, or of Equestrian Nep¬ 
tune, at which the Sabine women were car¬ 
ried off by the Romans ; on the 23d, Vulcana- 
lia, to Vulcan. 

9. In September, on the 4th, Ludi magni or 
Romanif in honor of the great gods, Jupiter, 
Juno, and Minerva, for the safety of the city ; 
on the 13th, the consul or dictator used an¬ 
ciently to fix a nail in the temple of Jupiter, 
which is supposed to have been done to mark 
the number of years ; on the 30th, Meditrina- 
lia^ to Meditrina, the goddess of curing or heal¬ 
ing, at which time new wine was first drunk. 

10. In October, on the 12th, Augustalia, or 
Ludi Augustales ; on the 13th, Faunalia ; on 
the 15th, a horse was sacrificed, called Equus 
Octohris, because Troy was supposed to have 
been taken in this month by means of a horse. 
The tail was brought with great speed to the 
Regia or house of the pontifex maximus, that 
its blood might drop on the hearth. 

11. In November, on the 13th, there was a 
sacred feast, called Epulum Jovis ; on the 27th, 
sacred rites were performed on account of two 
Greeks and two Gauls, a man and a woman 
of each, who were buried alive in the ox-mar¬ 
ket, in compliance with the oracles found in 
the books of the Sibyls, at the beginning of the 
Gallic war, and also at the beginning of the 
second Punic war. 


FESTIVALS OF THE ROMANS. 


139 


12. In December, on the 5th, Faunalia ; on 
the 17th, Saturnalia^ the feasts of Saturn, the 
most celebrated of the whole year, when all 
ranks were devoted to mirth and feasting, 
friends sent presents to one another, and mas¬ 
ters treated their slaves as their equals, and 
even served them at table. This feast contin¬ 
ued at first for one day, afterwards for three, 
and then for five ; on the 23d, Laurentinalia, 
in honor of Laurentia Acca, the wife of the 
shepherd Faustulus, and nurse of Romulus. 

The FericB which were annually 

appointed by the magistrates, were— 

1. FericB Latince, the Latin holidays, which 
were solemnized by the Latins in common 
with the Romans, on the Alban mountain, at 
first for one day, afterwards for four days. 

2. Paganalia, celebrated in the villages to 
the tutelary gods of the rustic tribes, at which 
time every peasant should pay into the hands 
of the censor a piece of money, the men a 
piece of one kind, the women of another, and 
the children of a third kind; and in this way 
the number of inhabitants was taken. 

3. SementivcB, in seed-time, for a good crop. 

4. Compitaliay to the Lares, in places where 
several ways met. 

Ferice Imperativce were holidays appointed 
occasionally, as when it was said to have 
rained stones, for expiating other prodigies, on 
account of some public calamity, or of some 
victory. 


140 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME, 


FericB were sometimes private, and celebra¬ 
ted only in families, on the birth-day of some 
member or ancestor, &c. 

As most of the year was taken up in holi¬ 
days and sacrifices, to the great loss of the 
public, the emperor Claudius abridged their 
number. . 


CHAPTER V. 

PUBLIC GAMES, AND AMUSEMENTS OP THE ROMANS. 


Section I. 

The Games and Shows of the Circus ; Athletic 
Exercises, ^c. 

Games among the Romans constituted a part 
of religious worship. At first, they were al¬ 
ways consecrated to some god. The most fa¬ 
mous games were those celebrated in the 
Circus Maximus. This circus was built by Tar- 
quinius Priscus, and afterwards at different 
times magnificently adorned. It was situated 
between the Palatine and Aventine hills, and 
was of an oblong circular form; its length was 



THE GAMES AND SHOWS OF THE CIRCUS. 141 


730 yards, or about three sevenths of a mile ; 
the breadth about one third of the length, with 
seats all around rising one above another. It 
is said to have contained 150,000 persons, or 
according to others, double that number. Its 
circumference was a mile. On one end there 
were several openings, from which the horses 
and chariots started, called carceres. 

The shows {spectacula) exhibited in the Cir- 
cus Maximus^ were chiefly the following: 

1. Chariot and horse-races, of which the 
Romans were extravagantly fond. The char¬ 
ioteers {agitatores or aurigce) were distributed 
into four parties, distinguished by their differ¬ 
ent dress or livery,—the white, {albata;) the red, 
{russata;) the blue or sea-colored, {veneta;) 
and the green, (prasina ;) to which Domitian 
added two, the golden, {aurata,) and the purple, 
{purpurea.) The spectators favored one or the 
other color, as humor or caprice inclined them. 

The order in which the chariots stood was 
determined by lot; and the person w^ho presi¬ 
ded at the games gave the signal for starting 
by dropping a napkin or cloth. A trumpet 
also sounded. Then they sprang forward, and 
whoever first ran seven times round the eourse 
was victorious. The victor being proclaimed 
by the voice of a herald, was crowned, and 
received a prize in money of considerable val¬ 
ue. Palms were also given to the victors. 

2. Contests of agility and strength, of which 
there were five kinds ; running, {cursus;) leap- 


142 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


ing, {salius;) boxing, (pugilatus;) wrestling, 
{lucta ;) and throwing the discus or quoit, {disci 
jactus.) In these .exercises the combatants 
{athletce) contended nearly naked, with no cloth¬ 
ing but drawers. This covering, w'hich went 
from the waist downward, and supplied the 
place of a tunic, was called campestre, and the 
place for exercises, gymnasium. 

The AthletcB were anointed with a glutinous 
ointment, {ceroma.) Boxers covered their hands 
with a kind of gloves, {chirotheccB^ which had 
lead or iron sewed in them, to make the strokes 
fall with greater weight. 

The athletce were previously trained in a 
place of exercise,and restricted to a particular 
diet. 

3. Ludus Trojce, a mock-fight performed by 
young noblemen on horseback. 

4. Venatio, or the fighting of wild beasts 
with one another, or with men called bestiarii, 
who were either forced to this by way of pun¬ 
ishment, as the primitive Christians often were, 
or fought voluntarily, either from a natural fe¬ 
rocity of disposition, or induced by hire. An 
incredible number of wild animals of various 
kinds were brought from all quarters for the 
entertainment of the people, and at an im¬ 
mense expense. They were kept in enclosures 
{vivaria) till the day of exhibition. Pompey 
exhibited at one time five hundred lions; at 
another time one hundred and forty-two ele¬ 
phants were procured ; and besides lions, ele- 


GLADIATORIAL SHOWS. 


143 


phants, bears, &c., one hundred and fifty pan¬ 
thers were shown at one time. 

5. The representation of a horse aud foot 
battle, and also of an encampment, or a siege. 

G. The representation of a sea-fight, {nau~ 
machia,) which was at first made in the Circus 
Maximus, but more frequently elsewhere. 
Augustus dug a lake near the Tiber for that 
purpose ; and Domitian built a naval Theatre. 
Those who fought were called naumachiarii. 
They were usually composed of captives, or 
condemned malefactors, who fought to death 
unless saved by the clemency of the emperor. 

If any thing unlucky happened at the 
games, they were renewed, and often more 
than once. 


Section II. 

Gladiatorial Shows. 

The shows of gladiators were properly 
called Munera, and the person who exhibited 
them Munerarius ; who, although in a private 
station, enjoyed, during the days of the exhi¬ 
bition, the ensigns of magistracy. 

Gladiators were first publicly exhibited at 
Rome by two brothers, named Bruti, at the 
funeral of their father; and for some time, 
they were exhibited only on such occasions; 



144 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


but afterwards also by the magistrates, to en¬ 
tertain the people, chiefly at the Saturnalia, 
and feasts of Minerva. Incredible numbers 
of men were destroyed in this manner. After 
the triumph of Trajan over the Dacians, spec¬ 
tacles were exhibited for one hundred and 
twenty-three days, in which eleven thousand 
animals of different kinds were killed, and ten 
thousand gladiators fought. 

Gladiators were kept and maintained in 
schools by persons called LanistcB, who pur¬ 
chased and trained them. When they exer¬ 
cised, they fenced with wooden swords. They 
were at first composed of captives and slaves, 
or condemned malefactors. But afterwards 
also free-born citizens, induced by hire or in¬ 
clination, fought on the arena ; some even of 
noble birth ; and, what is still more wonderful, 
women of rank. 

Gladiators were distinguished by their armor 
and manner of fighting. The secutores had 
for their arms, a helmet, a shield, and a sword, 
or leaden bullet. The Retiarii were usually 
matched with them. These were dressed in a 
short tunic, with the head bare, bearing in 
their left hand a three-pointed lance, and in 
their right a net, (retis,) with which they at¬ 
tempted to entangle their adversary, by cast¬ 
ing it over his head and suddenly drawing it 
together, and then slaying him with their tri¬ 
dent. But if the retiarius missed his aim, either 
by throwing his net too short or too far, he in- 


GLADIATORIAL SHOWS. 


145 


stantly betook himself to flight, and endeavored 
to prepare his net for a second cast; while 
his antagonist as quickly pursued (whence the 
name, secutor) to prevent his design by dis¬ 
patching him. 

The gladiators sometimes fought in numbers 
and sometimes in pairs. They were generally 
exhibited in an amphitheatre. 

The largest amphitheatre was begun by Ves¬ 
pasian and completed by Titus, now called 
Colis(Bum. It was of an oval form, and could 
contain 87,000 spectators. Its ruins still re¬ 
main. The place where the gladiators fought 
was called arena, because it was covered with 
sand, or saw-dust, to prevent the gladiators 
from sliding, and to absorb the blood. The 
podium was next the arena, where the sena¬ 
tors and ambassadors of foreign nations sat. 
The podium projected over the wall which 
surrounded the arena, and was raised between 
twelve and fifteen feet above it, secured with 
a breast-work against the irruption of wild 
beasts. As a further defence, the arena was 
surrounded with an iron railing and a canal. 
The Equites sat behind the senators, and the 
rest of the people behind the Equites. 

Anciently women were not permitted to see 
the gladiators, but afterwards this restriction 
was removed. 

Nigh to the amphitheatre was a place called 
spoliarium, to which those who were killed, 
or mortally wounded, were dragged by a hook. 

13 


146 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


On the day of the exhibition the gladiators 
were led along the arena in procession. Then 
they were matched by pairs, and their swords 
were examined by the exhibitor of the games. 
As a prelude to battles, they first fought with 
wooden swords, fiourishing their arms with 
great dexterity. Then, upon a signal given, 
with a trumpet, they laid aside these, and as¬ 
sumed their proper arms. They adjusted 
themselves with great care, and stood in a 
particular posture. They then pushed at one 
another, and repeated the thrust. As it was 
more easy to parry or avoid direct thrusts th^n 
back or side strokes, they took particular care 
to defend their side. 

When any gladiator was wounded, the spec¬ 
tators exclaimed ‘ habeU (he has got it.) The 
gladiator lowered his arms, as a sign of his 
being vanquished; but his fate depended on 
the pleasure of the people, who, if they wished 
him to be saved, pressed down their thumbs ; 
if to be slain, they turned up their thumbs, 
and ordered him to receive the sword, which • 
gladiators usually submitted to with amazing 
fortitude. 

The rewards given to the victors were a 
palm, money, and a reed or wooden sword, 
as a sign of their being discharged from , 
fighting. 

The spectators expressed the same eager¬ 
ness by wagers {sponsiones) on the different 
gladiators as in the Circus, 


THE THEATRE AND DRAMA. 


147 


Section III. 

The Theatre and Drama. 

Dramatic entertainments were first intro¬ 
duced at Rome on account of a pestilence, A. 
U. 391, to appease the divine wrath. Before 
that time there had been only the games of the 
ch'cus. They were called ludiscenici, because 
they were first acted in a shade, formed by 
branches and leaves of trees; hence after¬ 
wards the front of the theatre, where the ac¬ 
tors stood, was called scena, and the actors 
scenici. 

Rude plays, made up with music, dancing, 
and buffoonery, were in use in the earlier pe¬ 
riods of the republic ; but afterwards the en¬ 
tertainment was improved, and a new kind 
of dramatic composition was contrived, called 
satyree or saturce, ‘ satires.’ These satires were 
set to music, and repeated with suitable ges¬ 
tures, accompanied with the flute and dan¬ 
cing. They contained much ridicule and smart 
rapartee. 

It was Livius Andronicus, the freedman of 
M. Livius Salinator, and the preceptor of his 
sons, who, giving up satires, first ventured to 
write a regular play about A. U. 512. He 
was the actor of his own compositions, as all 
then were. Being obliged by the audience 
frequently to repeat the same part, and thus 


148 


ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. 


becoming hoarse, he obtained permission to 
employ a boy to sing to the flute, while he 
acted what was sung. 

Plays were afterwards greatly improved at 
Rome from the model of the Greeks. 

Dramatic entertainrnents, in their improved 
state, were chiefly of three kinds. Comedy, Tra¬ 
gedy, and Pantomimes. 

1. Comedy {Comaedia) was a representation 
of common life, written in a familiar style, 
and usually with a happy issue. The design 
of it was to expose vice and folly to ridicule. 

Comedy among the Greeks was divided into 
old, middle, and new. In the first, real charac¬ 
ters and names were represented ; in the se¬ 
cond, real characters, but fictitious names ; in 
the third, both fictitious characters and names. 
Nothing was ever known at Rome but the new 
comedy. 

Comedies among the Romans were distin¬ 
guished by the character and dress of the per¬ 
sons introduced on the stage. The actors of 
comedy wore a low-heeled shoe, called soccus. 

2. Tragedy {tragaedia) is said to have been 
invented by Thespis, a native of Attica, about 
536 years before Christ. He went about in 
Greece, with his actors, from village to village, 
in a cart, on which a temporary stage was 
erected, where they played and sang, having 
their faces smeared with the lees of wine. 
Thespis was succeeded by ^Eschylus, who 
erected a permanent stage, and was the in- 


THE THEATRE AND DRAMA. 


149 


ventor of the mask, of the long-flowing robe, 
and of the high-heeled shoe or buskin {cothur¬ 
nus) which tragedians wore. After iEschylus 
followed Sophocles and Euripides, who 
brought tragedy to the highest perfection. 
In their time, comedy began first to be con¬ 
sidered as a distinct composition from tragedy: 
but at Rome comedy was long cultivated be¬ 
fore any attempt was made to compose trage¬ 
dies. The tragedy represented some signal 
action, performed by illustrious persons, and 
generally having a fatal issue. 

Every regular play among the Romans was 
divided into five acts ; the subdivision into 
scenes is thought to be a modern invention. 

Between the acts of a tragedy were intro¬ 
duced a number of singers, (chorus.) The 
music chiefly used was that of the flute, of 
which instrument there were various forms. 

3. Pantomimes (pantomimi) were represen¬ 
tations by dumb show, in which the actors 
expressed every thing by their dancing and 
gestures, without speaking. They wore a 
kind of wooden or iron sandals, called sca- 
hilla, which made a rattling noise when they 
danced. 

The Romans had rope-dancers, who were 
often introduced in the time of the play. The 
plays were also often interrupted by the peo¬ 
ple calling out for various shows to be ex¬ 
hibited. 

The actors were applauded or hissed, as 
13* 


150 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


they performed their parts, or pleased or dis¬ 
pleased the spectators. Those actors who 
were most approved received crowns. 

The place where dramatic representations 
were exhibited was called theatrum, a theatre. 
In ancient times the people viewed the enter¬ 
tainments standing. A theatre, w^hich was 
being built A. U. 599, was by the appointment 
of the senate ordered to be pulled down, as a 
thing hurtful to good morals. Afterwards 
temporary theatres were occasionally erected. 
The most splendid was that of M. JEmilius 
Scaurus, when sedile, which contained 80,000 
persons, and was adorned with amazing mag¬ 
nificence and at an incredible expense. Pom- 
pey reared a theatre of hewn stone which 
contained 40,000 persons ; but that he might 
not incur the animadversion of the censors, 
he dedicated it as a temple to Venus. 

Theatres at first were open at the top, and 
in excessive heat or rain, coverings were 
drawn over them: but in later times they were 
roofed. 

The theatre was of an oblong semi-circular 
form, like the half of an amphitheatre. The 
benches, or seats, rose one above another, and 
were distributed to the different orders as in 
the amphitheatre. The foremost rows next 
the stage, called orchestra^ were assigned to 
senators and ambassadors ; fourteen rows be¬ 
hind them to the Equites ; and the rest to the 
people. The whole was called cavea. 


THE THEATRE AND DRAMA. 


151 


The parts of the theatre allotted to the per¬ 
formers were called scena, postsceniurrij prosce- 
nium, piilpitum, and orchestra. 

1. Scena, the scene, was adorned with col¬ 
umns, statues, and pictures of various kinds, ac¬ 
cording to the nature of the plays exhibited. 
The scenery was concealed by a curtain, which, 
contrary to the modern custom, was dropped 
or drawn down when the play began, and 
raised or drawn up when the play was over. 

2. Posfscenium, the place behind the scene, 
where the actors changed their dress, and 
where those things were supposed to be done, 
which could not with propriety be exhibited 
on the stage. 

3. Proscenium^ the place before the scene, 
where the actors appeared. The place where 
the actors recited their parts was called pulpi- 
turn ; and the place where they danced, orches¬ 
tra, which was about five feet lower than the 
pulpitum. 


152 


ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. 


CHAPTER VI. 

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS OP THE ROMANS. 


Section I. 

Dwellings, Furnitui'e, <^c. 

The houses of the Romans are supposed at 
first to have been simple cottages, thatched 
with straw. After the city was burnt by the 
Gauls it was rebuilt in a more solid and com¬ 
modious manner, but the haste in building, 
prevented attention to the regularity of the 
streets. 

In the time of Nero, the city was set on fire, 
and more than two thirds of it burnt to the 
ground. Nero himself was thought to have 
been the author of this conflagration. He 
beheld it from the tower of Maecenas, and be¬ 
ing delighted, as he said, with the beauty of 
the flame, played the taking of Troy, dressed 
like an actor. 

The city was rebuilt with greater regu¬ 
larity and splendor. The streets were made 
straight and broader. The areas of the houses 
were measured out, and their height restricted 



DWELLINGS, FURNITURE, ETC. 153 

to seventy feet. Each house had a portico 
before it fronting the street, and did not com¬ 
municate with any other by a common wall 
as formerly. 

Buildings in which several families lived 
were called insula; houses in which one family 
lived, domus. 

The vestibulum was not properly a part of 
the house, but an empty space or court before 
the gate, through which was an access to it. 
The vestibule of the golden palace of Nero 
was so large, that it contained three porticoes 
a mile long each, and a pond. 

The janua was the gate, generally raised 
above the ground so as to ascend it by steps. 
The gate or door was always opened inward, 
unless it was granted to any one by a special 
law to open his door to the street. A slave 
watched at the gate as porter, {janitor,) usually 
in chains, armed with a staff or rod, and at¬ 
tended by a dog. 

The atrium, or hall, was of the form of an 
oblong square, surrounded with covered or 
arched galleries. Three sides of the atrium 
were supported on pillars. The side opposite 
to the gate was called tahlinum, and the other 
two sides alee. 

In the atrium, the family were accustomed 
to sup. There also the nobility placed the 
images of their ancestors, and clients waited 
on their patrons. A hearth {focus) was here, 
on which was a fire kept always burning, near 


154 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


the gate, under the charge' of the janitor ; 
around it the images of the lares were placed. 

The ancients had no chimneys, and were 
much annoyed with smoke. 

The apartments of a house were variously 
constructe(J and arranged at different times, 
according to the different taste of individuals. 

The Roman houses were covered with tiles 
of considerable breadth. The ancient Ro¬ 
mans had only openings {foramina) in the 
walls to admit the light. Windows, (fenestrce,) 
under the emperors, were made of a certain 
transparent stone, {lajyis specularis,) which 
could be split into thin leaves. Paper, linen 
cloth, and horn, seem likewise to have been 
used for windows. Glass windows are not 
mentioned till about the middle of the fourth 
century of the Christian era. 

The magnificence of the Romans was greatly 
conspicuous in their country villas. A inlla 
originally denoted a farm-house ; but when 
increased wealth inspired the citizens with a 
taste for new pleasures, the villa became the 
abode of opulence and luxury. 

A villa of this kind was divided into three 
parts, urhana. rustica, and fructuaria. The 
first contained dining-rooms, parlors, bed¬ 
chambers, tennis-courts, walks, terraces, &c.; • 
the second contained accommodations for the 
various tribes of slaves and workmen, stables, 
&c. ; and the third, wine and oil-cellars, corn- 
yards, barns, granaries, &c. In every villa 


DRESS OP THE ROMANS. 


155 


there was commonly a tower, a large park for 
deer and wild beasts, and fish-ponds. 

The Romans were uncommonly fond of gar¬ 
dens, stored with fruit and shady trees, adorned 
with beautiful statues, and joined by beautiful 
and shady walks. 

The furniture of the Roman houses, which 
was at first very simple, changed with the 
general luxury. The eating-rooms were re¬ 
markable for their costly embellishments. The 
tables were originally square, made of wood, 
and on four feet; but the form was afterwards 
changed to circular or oval, supported on a 
single carved pedestal, and were richly inlaid 
with ivory, gold, and silver, and sometimes 
with precious stones. We read of a single 
table, formed of a kind of wood called citron 
wood, that cost more than eight thousand 
pounds sterling, (more than $35,000.) 

In their rooms the Romans used portable 
furnaces, so that chimneys were not required 
as much as in modern times. 


Section II. 

■ Dress of the Romans. 

The distinguishing part of the Roman dress 
was the. toga, or gown; whence the Ro¬ 
mans were called gens togata. The toga was 



156 


ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. 


a loose, flowing, woollen robe, which covered 
the whole body ; round and close at the bot¬ 
tom, but open at the top down to the girdle ; 
without sleeves, so that the right arm was at 
liberty; and the left supported a part of the 
toga which was drawn up and thrown back 
over the left shoulder, and thus formed what 
was called sinus, a fold or cavity upon the 
breast, in which things might be carried, or 
with which the face and head might be 
covered. 

The toga in later times had several folds, 
but anciently few or none. These folds, when 
collected in a knot or centre, were called mnho. 

When a person was engaged at any manual 
labor, he tucked up his toga and girded it round 
him. 

The toga of the rich and noble was finer 
and larger than that of the less wealthy. A 
new toga was called pexa; when old and 
threadbare, trita. The Romans were at great 
pains to adjust the toga so that it might hang 
gracefully. 

The toga at first was worn by women as 
well as men. But afterwards matrons wore a 
different robe, (stola,) with a broad border or 
fringe (mstita) reaching to the feet; and also 
when they went abroad, a loose outer robe, 
thrown over the stola as a mantle or cloak, 
called palla. 

None but Roman citizens were permitted to 
wear the toga, and banished persons were pro- 


DRESS OF THE ROMANS. 


157 


hibited the use of it. Hence the toga is put 
for the dignity of a Roman. 

The color of the toga was white, and candi¬ 
dates for office wore one more than usually 
white, {toga Candida.) The toga in mourning 
was of a black or dark color, {togapulla.) The 
mourning robe of women was called ricinium. 

At entertainments the more wealthy Ro¬ 
mans laid aside the toga and put on a particu¬ 
lar robe called synthesis. Magistrates and 
certain priests wore a toga^ bordered with pur¬ 
ple, {toga prcBtexta ;) and young men, till they 
were seventeen years of age, and young wo¬ 
men, till they were married, also wore a gown 
bordered with purple, {toga prcetexta.) Gene¬ 
rals at their triumphs wore an embroidered 
toga, {toga picta.) 

Young men when they had completed the 
seventeenth year of their age, laid aside the 
toga prcetexta, and assumed the manly gown, 
id'Oga virilis.) The ceremony of changing the 
toga was performed with great solemnity be¬ 
fore the images of their ancestors, {Lares.) 

The ancient Romans had no other clothing 
but the toga, but afterwards they wore under 
the toga a white woollen vest called tunica-, 
which came down a little below the knees be¬ 
fore, and the middle of the legs behind, at first 
without sleeves. Tunics with sleeves, or 
reaching to the ankles, were considered effem¬ 
inate. The tunic was fastened by a girdle or 
belt {cingulum) about the waist, to keep it 
14 


158 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


tight, which also served as a purse in which 
they kept their money. The tunic was worn 
by women as well as men, but the tunic of the 
women always came down to their feet and 
covered their arms. 

The senators had a broad stripe of purple 
(or rather two stripes) sewed on the breast of 
their tunic, called latus clavus; and theEquites 
a narrow strip, {angiistus clavus.) 

The poor people, who could not purchase a 
toga, wore only the tunic. 

Under the tunic the Romans wore another 
woollen covering, next to the skin, like our 
shirt, called indusium. Linen clothes were not 
used until the time of the emperors. 

In later ages the Romans wore above the 
toga a kind of great-coat, called lacerna, with 
a covering for the head and shoulders, called 
cucullus. They had another kind of great¬ 
coat or surtout resembling the lacerna, but 
shorter and straighten, called penula. The 
sagum was a military cloak. 

The Romans wore neither stockings nor 
breeches, but sometimes they wrapped their 
legs with pieces of cloth, (fascicB.) 

. They had various coverings for their feet, 
but chiefly of two kinds. The one {calceus, or 
shoe) covered the whole foot, and was tied 
above with a latchet or lace; the other (solea) 
was a slipper or sandal, and covered only the 
sole of the foot, and was fastened with leath¬ 
ern thongs or strings. 


DRESS OF THE ROMANS. 


159 


The shoes of the senators were of a black 
color, and came up to the middle of their legs. 
They had a golden or silver crescent (C) on 
the top of the foot. 

The shoes of the women were generally 
white, sometimes red, scarlet, or purple, adorn¬ 
ed with embroidery and pearls. Men’s shoes 
were generally black. The shoes of the 
soldiers {caligcB) were generally shod with 
nails. The shoes of comedians were called 
socci; of the tragedians, cothurni. 

The ancient Romans went with their head 
bare, except at sacred rites, games, and festi¬ 
vals. They, however, threw over their head 
the lappet of their gown. 

The head-dress of the women was at first 
very simple. But when riches and luxury in¬ 
creased, a woman’s toilet was called her world, 
{muudus muliehris.) They anointed their hair 
with the richest perfumes; curled it with hot 
irons, adorned it with gold, pearls, precious 
stones ; with crowns of garlands, and chaplets 
of flowers, bound with fillets or ribands of 
various colors. Every woman of fashion 
had, at least, one female hair-dresser, {orna- 
trix.) 

Women used various cosmetics and washes 
to improve their color. They used ear-rings 
(inaures) of pearl and of precious stones, and 
gemmed necklaces, {monilia,) armlets, {armil- 
Ice,) and rings {annuli) of gold set with pre¬ 
cious stones. Rings were used chiefly for seal- 


160 


ANTIdUITIES OF ROME. 


ing letters and papers, and were worn by men 
as well as women. 


Section III. 

Marriage Customs and Divorce, 

A legal marriage among the Romans was 
made in three different ways, called usus, con- 
farreatio, and coemptio. 

1. Usus was when a woman, with the con¬ 
sent of her parents or guardians, lived with a 
man for a whole year without being absent 
three nights, and thus became his lawful wife. 
If absent three nights she was said to have in¬ 
terrupted the usus, and thus prevented a mar¬ 
riage. 

2. Confarreatio was when a man and wo¬ 
man were joined in marriage by the Pontifex 
Maximus, or Flamen Dialis, in presence of at 
least ten witnesses, by a set form of words, 
and by tasting a cake made of salt, water, and 
flour, {far.) This was the most solemn form 
of marriage, and could only be dissolved by 
another kind of sacrifice called diffarreatio. 

3. Coemptio was a kind of mutual purchase, 
when a man and woman were married by de¬ 
livering to one another a small piece of money, 
and repeating certain words. The man asked 
the woman if she was willing to be the mis- 



MARRIAGE CUSTOMS AND DIVORCE. 


IGl 


tress of his family. She answered, that she 
was willing. In the same manner the woman 
asked the man, and he made a similar answer. 

The effects of this rite and of confarreatio 
were the same. The woman became a part¬ 
ner of all the substance and sacred rites of 
her husband, and if he died intestate and*child¬ 
less, she inherited his whole fortune ; and if he 
left children, she had an equal share with them. 
She assumed her husband’s name together with 
her own. She resigned to him all her posses¬ 
sions, and acknowledged him as her lord and 
master, {doininics.) The goods which a woman 
brought to her husband besides her portion, 
were called parapherna^ or pardphernalia. In 
the early days of the republic, dowries were 
very small, but after wards the usual portion 
of a lady of senatorial! rank was about 30,41)1 
dollars. 

Polygamy, or plurality of wives, was for¬ 
bidden among the Romans. 

The age of puberty or marriage was from 
fourteen for males, and twelve for girls. No 
young man or woman could marry without the 
consent of the parents or guardians. 

On the wedding day, the bride was dressed 
in a long white robe, bordered with a purple 
fringe, or embroidered ribands, bound with a 
girdle or zone of wool tied in a knot, which 
the husband alone was to untie ; her face was 
covered with a red veil, to denote her modesty ; 
her hair was divided into six locks with the 
14 ^ 


162 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


point of a spear, and crowned with flowers; 
her shoes were of the same color with her 
veil, i. e. red or flame-colored. 

No marriage was celebrated without con¬ 
sulting the auspices, and offering sacrifices to 
the gods ; especially to Juno, the goddess of 
marriage. Anciently, a hog was sacrificed. 
The gall of the victim was always taken out, 
and thrown away, to signify the removal of all 
bitterness from marriage. The marriage cer¬ 
emony was performed in the house of the bride’s 
father or nearest relation. In the evening, the 
bride was conducted to her husband’s house. 
She was taken apparently by force from the 
arms of her mother or nearest relation, in 
memory of the violence used to the Sabine 
women ; and also to denote the reluctance 
which she was supposed to feel at leaving the 
paternal roof. Three boys, whose parents 
were alive, attended her; two of them sup¬ 
porting her by the arm, and the third bearing 
a flambeau of pine, or thorn {tcBda pinea, or 
spinea) before her. There were five other 
torches carried before her. Maid-servants fol¬ 
lowed with a distaff, a spindle, and wool; in¬ 
timating that she was to labor at spinning, as 
the Roman matrons of old did. 

A great number of relations and friends at¬ 
tended the nuptial procession, which was call¬ 
ed officium. 

The door and door-posts of the bridegroom’s 
house were adorned with leaves and flowers, 


MARRIAGE CUSTOMS AND DIVORCE. 


163 


apd the rooms with tapestry. When the bride 
came there, being asked who she was, she al¬ 
ways answered, “ uhi tii Caius, ihi ego Caia” 
“ where thou art Caius, there I shall be Caia,” 
intimating that she would imitate the excel¬ 
lent housewife Caia, the wife of Tarquinius 
Priscus. She then bound the door-posts with 
woollen fillets, and anointed them with the fat 
of swine or wolves, to avert fascination and 
enchantments, whence the name uxor, i. e. 
unxor, an anointer. She was lifted over the 
threshold, or gently stepped over; for it was 
thought ominous to touch it with her feet, be¬ 
cause the threshold was sacred to Vesta, the 
goddess of virgins. 

Upon her entry the keys of the house were 
delivered to her, to denote her being intrusted 
with the management of the family. A 
sheep’s skin was spread before her, intimating 
that she was to work at the spinning of wool. 
Both she and her husband touched fire and wa¬ 
ter, because all things were supposed to be 
produced from these two elements, and with 
the water they bathed their feet. 

The husband gave a feast to his relations 
and friends, and to those of the bride and her 
attendants, called ccsfiui nuptialis. Musicians 
sang the nuptial song, {ejnthalajnium.) Nuptial 
songs were sung by young women before the 
door of the nuptial chamber till midnight. The 
husband scattered nuts among the boys, inti¬ 
mating that he dropped boyish amusements, and 


164 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


thencefortli was to act as a man. Young wo¬ 
men when they were married consecrated their 
playthings and dolls {pupcs) to Venus. The 
guests were dismissed with small presents. 

Next day another entertainment was given 
by the husband, called repotia, when presents 
were sent to the bride ; and she began to act 
as mistress of the family, by performing sa¬ 
cred rites. * 

A woman after marriage retained her for¬ 
mer name. 

Divorce, (divortium,) or a right to dissolve 
the marriage contract, was by the law of Rom¬ 
ulus permitted to the husband but not to the 
wife ; not, however, without a just cause. A 
groundless or unjust divorce was punished with 
the loss of effects; of which one half fell to 
the wife, and the other was consecrated to 
Ceres. 

A man might then divorce his wife, if she 
had violated the conjugal faith, or had de¬ 
stroyed his offspring by poison, or brought upon 
him supposititious children ; if she had coun¬ 
terfeited his private keys, or even drunk wine 
without his knowledge. 

Although the law allowed husbands this 
liberty of divorce, yet there is no instance of 
its being exercised for about 520 years. After 
this time divorces became common, not only 
for important reasons, but often on the most 
frivolous pretexts. If a wife was guilty of in¬ 
fidelity to her husband, she forfeited her dow- 


EDUCATION OF CHILDREN. 


165 


ry, but if the divorce was made without any 
fault of hers, the dowry was restored to her. 

In the later times of the republic, the same 
liberty of divorce was exercised by the women 
as by the men. 


Section IV. 

Education oj Children. 

The education of the Romans at first corre¬ 
sponded with their rude state of society, and 
simple manner of life. But after their inter¬ 
course with the Greeks a more liberal plan of 
education was adopted. Public schools were 
opened for the reception of youth of both sexes. 

The system of education among the Ro¬ 
mans, about the time of Cicero, was much to 
be admired. The utmost attention was be¬ 
stowed on the early formation of the mind and 
character. 

The Roman matrons themselves nursed their 
children. The greatest attention was given to 
the language of the children. The attainment 
of a pure and correct expression was a great 
object; for the honors of the republic were the 
prize of eloquence. 

In literature and the accomplishments of 
polished life, they were alike instructed. 

From the earliest dawn of reason, a course 



166 


ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. 


of discipline was pursued by some matron of 
the family; and as the children grew to man¬ 
hood they were habituated to all the various 
athletic exercises that could impart agility or 
grace, and fit them for the profession of arms. 
At the age of seventeen years, young men as¬ 
sumed the manly robe, {toga virilis ;) and at 
this time, young men of rank were placed un- 
*der the protection of somj^ senator or eminent 
orator, whom they were to study to imitate, 
and under whose auspices they were initiated 
into public business. 

Eloquence and the military art were the 
surest roads to preferment. These according¬ 
ly were made high objects of pursuit with the 
Roman youth. Eloquence {eloquentia ovfacun- 
dia) was taught as a science at public schools. 

Boys of rank were attended to school by a 
slave, called capsarius or lihrarius, who car¬ 
ried their books, writing materials, &c. A pri¬ 
vate instructor was called pcBdagogus; a pub¬ 
lic teacher, prcEceptor, magister, or doctor. 

Boys of inferior rank carried their satchels 
and books themselves. 

From the care which the Romans bestowed 
upon the education of their youth, both male 
and female, arose the large number of great 
men and eminent women which Rome pro¬ 
duced, and the virtues with which they were 
adorned, during the brilliant era of the republic. 

Roman literature, in the Augustan era, was 
but little inferior to that of the Greeks. 


MANNERS AND CUSTOMS IN PRIVATE LIFE, ETC. 1G7 


Section V. 

Manners and Customs in Private Life, Enter¬ 
tainments, ^c. 

The food of the ancient Romans was of the 
simplest kind, principally vegetables ; and wine 
was scarcely known among them. Their chief 
magistrates, when not occupied in the duties 
of their office, cultivated the ground with their 
own hands; sat down at the same board, and 
partook of the same food with their servants. 
But when riches were introduced, by the ex¬ 
tension of conquest, the manners of the people 
were changed, and luxury seized all ranks. 
The pleasures of the table became the great 
object of attention. 

The principal meal of the Romans was call¬ 
ed coeno, supper. The usual time for this was 
the ninth hour, or three o’clock, P. M., in sum¬ 
mer, and the tenth hour in winter. It was es¬ 
teemed luxurious to sup more early. 

About noon the Romans took a meal called 
prandium, dinner ; which anciently was call¬ 
ed coena. In this meal they usually took only 
a little light food. 

Besides the ccena and prandium, it became 
customary to take in the morning a breakfast, 
{jentaculum;) and some delicacy after supper 
to eat with their drink, called Commissatio. 

At first they sat at meals. The custom of 


168 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


reclining on couches, (Jecti or tori^ was intro¬ 
duced from the eastern nations; and at first 
adopted onl}'^ by the men, but afterwards al¬ 
lowed also to the women. The images of the 
gods used to be placed in this posture in a lec- 
tisternium. Boys and young men, below sev¬ 
enteen years of age, sat at the foot of the 
couch of their parents and friends. 

The custom of reclining took place only at 
supper. There v/as no formality at other 
meals. Persons took them alone, or in compa¬ 
ny, standing or sitting. 

On each couch there were commonly three 
persons. They lay with the upper part of the 
body reclined on the left arm, the head a lit¬ 
tle raised, the back supported by cushions, and 
the limbs stretched out at full length, the feet 
of the first behind the back of the second, and 
his feet behind the back of the third, with a 
pillow between each. In conversation, those 
who spoke raised themselves almost upright, 
supported by cushions. When they ate, they 
raised themselves on their elbow, and made 
use of the right hand ; and sometimes of both 
hands. We do not read of their using any 
knives or forks. 

The tables {mensce) of the Romans were an¬ 
ciently square, and called cibilce, on three sides 
of which were placed three couches; the 
fourth side was left empty for the slaves to 
bring in and take out the dishes. When the 
semicircular couch (sigma) was introduced, 


MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF PRIVATE LIFE, ETC. 169 

tables were mp.de round. The tables were 
usually brought in and out with the dishes on 
them. Before the guests began to eat, they 
always washed their hands, and a towel 
{mantile) was furnished to wipe them. But 
each guest generally brought with him from 
home a table-napkin, {mappa.) 

In later times, the Romans before supper 
were accustomed to bathe. The wealthy had 
baths, both cold and hot, at their own houses. 
There were public baths {palinea) for the use 
of the citizens at large, in which were sepa¬ 
rate apartments for the men and women. The 
usual time of bathing was two o’clock in sum¬ 
mer, and three in winter. 

The Romans before bathing took various 
kinds of exercise, as the ball, or tennis, {pilce;) 
throwing the javelin, and the discus or quoit; 
rolling or throwing a bullet of stone, lead, or 
iron; riding, runnjng, leaping, &c. Those who 
could not join in the exercise, took the air on 
foot, in a carriage, or a litter. 

There were various places for walking, 
{ambulacra^, both public and private ; in the 
open air, and under covering. Covered walks, 
(porticus,) porticoes, were built in dilferent 
places, chiefly around the Campus Martins and 
Forum; supported by marble pillars, and 
adorned with statues and columns. 

After bathing, they dressed for supper. 
They put on the synthesis^ and sUppers, which, 
when a person supped from home, were carried 
15 


170 


ANTIQUITIES OP ROME. 


to the place by a slave. At feasts the guests 
were crowned with garlands of flowers, and 
their hair was perfumed with various oint¬ 
ments. 

They began their feasts by prayers and li¬ 
bations to the gods. They never tasted any 
thing without consecrating it. They usually 
threw a part into the fire as an offering to the 
Lares, and when they drank, they poured out 
a part, as a libation to some god ofi the table. 
The table was held as sacred as an altar. It 
was consecrated by setting on it the images 
of the Lares, and salt-cellars ; and particularly 
the family salt-cellar, which was kept with 
great care. 

Salt was held in religious veneration by 
the ancients, and was always used in sacri¬ 
fices. 

As the ancients had not proper inns for the 
accommodation of travellers, the Romans when 
they were in^foreign countries, or at a distance 
from home, were accustomed to lodge at the 
houses of certain persons, whorn they in re¬ 
turn entertained at their houses in Rome. This 
was esteemed a very intimate connection, and 
called hospitium. 

The supper (casna) of the Romans usually 
consisted of two parts, called msma prima, the 
first course, composed of various kinds of meat; 
and mensa secunda or altera, the second course, 
consisting of fruits and sweetmeats. They 
usually began their entertainments with eggs 


MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF PRIVATE LIFE, ETC. 171 

and ended with fruits.* In the time of sup¬ 
per, the guests were entertained with music 
and dancing, sometimes with pantomimes and 
actors; but the more sober had only persons 
to read select passages from books. Their 
highest pleasure at an entertainment arose 
from an agreeable conversation. 

Wine was at first very rarely used as a 
beverage. Its chief use was in the worship 
of gods. Young men below thirty, and wo¬ 
men all their life, were forbidden to drink it, 
unless at sacrifices. But afterwards these re¬ 
strictions were removed, and wine mixed with 
water was a common drink at entertainments ; 
and too often to a shameful excess. During 
the intervals of drinking,^they often played at 
dice, (alea.) 

The repasts were ended in the same manner 
as they began, by libations and prayers. The 
guests drank to the health of their host, and 
the master of the house gave them certain 
presents at their departure. 

* Hence the phrase “ ah ovo, usque ad mala,'’ from the 
egg to the fruits, i. e. from the beginning to the end of supper. 


172 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


Section VI. 

Occupations, Arts, and Sciences. 

The ancient Romans were so devoted to 
agriculture, that their most illustrious com¬ 
manders were sometimes called from the 
plough. The senators commonly resided in 
the country, and cultivated the ground with 
their own hands. To be a good husbandman 
{bonus colonus, or agricola) was accounted the 
highest praise ; and whoever neglected his 
ground, or cultivated it improperly, was liable 
to the animadversion of the censors. 

When riches increased, and the estates of 
individuals were enlarged, opulent proprietors 
let parts of their ground to other citizens, who 
paid a certain rent for them as our farmers or 
tenants, and were properly called coloni. 

The grain chiefly cultivated by the Romans 
was wheat of different kinds, and called by 
different names, as triticum, siligo, rohus, far, 
&c. Barley {fiordewn) was cultivated, but not 
so extensively as wheat. It was the food of 
horses and sometimes of men. Oats (avcna) 
were cultivated in like manner. 

Trades and manufactures were considered 
among the Romans as degrading employments, 
and hence none but the lowest classes of the 
common people, and slaves, were ongaged in 
them. On this account there was always a 


OCCUPATIONS, ARTS, AND SCIENCES. • 173 

very great multitude of idlers, who subsisted 
on the public bounty rather than labor at these 
occupations. 

The ancient Romans used every method to 
encourage domestic industry in women. Spin¬ 
ning and weaving constituted their chief em¬ 
ployment. But in after times women of rank 
and fortune became so luxurious that they 
thought this employment below them. 

The fine arts were unknown at Rome until 
their victorious generals brought various spe¬ 
cimens from the places which they conquered. 
They admired and imitated the master-pieces 
of Greece. But in execution they fell short 
of their models. By help derived from Gre¬ 
cian genius they have, however, left us many 
wonderful specimens in the arts, particularly 
in architecture. 

The general literature of the Romans in 
their most intellectual era, was scarcely infe¬ 
rior to that of the Greeks. Poetry, history, 
oratory, philosophy, and the various styles of 
writing, were cultivated with great success. 

In some instances splendid libraries were 
attached to the galleries of some affluent pa¬ 
tricians, who patronized learning. These li¬ 
braries were open to the inspection of the 
learned and curious, and contributed greatly 
to the advancement of knowledge at Rome. 

The art of printing being unknown, books 
were sometimes written on parchment, but 
more generally on paper made from the leaves 
15 * 


174 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


of a plant called paptjru^, which grew and 
was prepared in Egypt. This plant was about 
ten cubits high, and had several coats, or 
skins, one above another, which they sepa¬ 
rated with a needle. 

The instrument used in writing was a reed, 
sharpened and split at the point like our pens, 
and called calamus. Their ink w'as usually 
made from a black liquid emitted by the cuttle¬ 
fish. 

The Romans commonly wrote only on one 
side of the paper, and joined'one sheet to the 
end of the other till they finished what they 
had to write, and then rolled it on a cylinder 
or staff, hence called vohimen, a volume. 

But unimportant matters were generally 
written on tablets spread with wax. The 
writing was done by means of a metal pencil, 
called stylus, pointed at one end to scratch the 
letters, and flat at the other to smooth the wax 
when correction was necessary. As the Ro¬ 
mans were not permitted to wear a sword or 
dagger in the city, they often upon a sudden 
provocation used the stylus as a weapon. 

In writing letters the Romans always put 
their own name first, and then that of the per¬ 
son to whom they wrote. They always an¬ 
nexed the letter S for salutem, i. e. wishes 
health. They ended with vale, farewell. 
They never ^wiscribed their name, as is done 
in modern times. 


9 


TREATMENT OF THE DEAD, ETC. 


175 


Section VII. 

Treatment of the Dead—Funeral Riles, ^c. 

The Romans paid the greatest attention to 
funeral rites, because they were of opinion 
that the souls of the unburied were not ad¬ 
mitted into the abodes of the dead ; or at 
least wandered a hundred years along the 
river Styx before they were allowed to cross 
it; for which reason, if the body of their 
friends could not be found, they erected to 
them an*empty tomb, {tumulus inanis, or ceno- 
taphium,). at which they performed the usual 
solemnities; and if they happened to see a 
dead body, they alwdys threw some earth upon 
it. Hence no kind of death was so formidable 
as death by shipwreck. 

When any one was at the point of death, 
his nearest relation present endeavored to 
catch his last breath with his mouth; for they 
believed that the soul, or living principle, 
{anima,) then went out at the mouth. He 
then closed the eyes and mouth of the. de¬ 
ceased, and those present called the deceased 
by name several times, at intervals, repeating 
ave or vale, farewell. The corpse was bathed 
and perfumed, and dressed in the richest robes 
which the deceased had worn when alive, and 
laid on a couch in the vestibule, with the feet 
outward, when a lamentation was made. 


ANTiaUITIES OP ROME. 


ne 

The couch was often decked with leaves 
and flowers. If the deceased had ever re¬ 
ceived a crown for his bravery, it was placed 
at his head. A small coin was always put 
into his mouth, which he was to give to Charon, 
the ferryman of hell, for ferrying him over the 
river Styx. 

A branch of cypress was placed at the door 
of the deceased, to prevent the pontifex maxi- 
mus from entering and thereby being polluted ; 
for it was unlawful for him, not only to touch 
a dead body, but even to look at it. 

The Romans at first interred their dead, 
but they soon adopted the custom of 'burning 
from the Greeks. This practice, however, did 
not become general till towards the end of the 
republic. 

A public funeral was called indictivum; a 
private one, taciturn; and the funeral of those 
who died under age or in infancy was called 
acerhum, or wimaturum. 

When a public funeral was intended, the 
corpse was usually kept for seven or eight 
days, with a keeper set to watch it. When 
the funeral was private, the body was not 
kept so long. 

On the day of the funeral the dead body 
was carried out with the feet foremost, on a 
couch covered with rich cloth, supported usu¬ 
ally on the shoulders of the nearest relations 
of the deceased, or his heirs. Poor citizens 
and slaves were carried to the funeral pile in 


TREATMENT OF THE DEAD, ETC. 177 

a plain bier or coffin, (sandapila,) commonly 
by four bearers called vespillones. The funeral 
couches were sometimes open and sometimes 
covered. 

All funerals were anciently solemnized in 
the night-time with torches, that they might 
not fail in the way of magistrates and priests, 
who were supposed to be ix)lluted by seeing a 
corpse, so that they could not perform sacred 
rites till they were purified by an expiatory 
sacrifice. But in later times public funerals 
(funera) were celebrated in the day-time with 
torches also. 

The order of the procession was regulated 
and every one’s place assigned him by a per¬ 
son called attended bylictors dressed 

in black. First went musicians of various 
kinds, with wind instruments of a larger size 
and deeper tone than those used on ordinary 
occasions; then mourning women, who were 
hired to lament or sing the praises of the de¬ 
ceased. After them came players and buf¬ 
foons, who danced and sung. One of thern, 
called archunhnus, supported the character of 
the deceased, imitating his former words and 
actions. Then followed the freed-men of the 
deceased with a cap on their head. Some 
masters at their death freed all their slaves, 
from the vanity of having their funeral pro¬ 
cession attended by a numerous train of freed- 
men. 

Before the corpse were carried the images 




178 


ANTIQUITIES OP ROME. 


of the deceased and those of his ancestors. 
If he had distinguished himself in war, the 
crowns and rewards which he had received 
for his valor were displayed, together w'ith 
the spoils and standards he had taken from the 
enemy. Behind the corpse walked the rela¬ 
tions of the deceased, his sons with their heads 
veiled, and his daughters with their heads 
bare, and their hair dishevelled, the magis¬ 
trates without their badges, and the nobility 
without their ornaments. The nearest rela¬ 
tions tore their garments and covered their 
hair with dust, or plucked it out. The w^o- 
men particularly beat their breasts, tore their 
cheeks, pretending to yield to all the impulses 
of extravagant grief. 

At the funeral of an illustrious citizen, the 
corpse was carried through the forum, when 
the procession stopped and a funeral oration 
(laudatio) was delivered in favor of the de¬ 
ceased from the rostruin by his son, or some 
near relation or friend. 

. From the forum the corpse was carried to 
the place of burying or burial without the city. 
The Vestal Virgins, and a few illustrious men 
only, were buried in the city. 

If the body was buried, the sepulchre was 
strewed with flowers ; and the mourners took 
a last farewell of the remains of the deceased. 

If the corpse was burned, a funeral pile 
(rogus or pyra) was constructed, in the shape 
of an altar, upon which the body was laid with 


TREATMENT OP THE DEAD, ETC. 179 

the couch, and his eyes forced open. The 
nearest relations kissed the body, and then set 
fire to the pile with a torch, turning away 
their faces to show that they did it with re¬ 
luctance. They threw into the fire various 
perfumes, the clothes and ornaments of the 
deceased ; in short, every thing that was sup¬ 
posed to have been agreeable to him when 
alive. 

As the manes were supposed to be appeased 
with blood, various animals were slaughtered 
at the pile, and thrown into it. 

Instances are recorded of persons who came 
to life again on the funeral pile after it was 
set on fire, but too late to be preserved; and 
others who, having revived before the pile was 
ignited, returned home on their feet. 

When the pile was burned down, the fire was 
extinguished and the embers soaked with wine, 
and the bones were collected by the nearest 
relations. The ashes and bones, sprinkled 
with the richest perfumes, were put into an 
urn {urna) of earth, marble, brass, silver, or 
gold, according to the wealth or rank of every 
one. Sometimes a small vial full of tears was 
put into the urn. 

The urn was solemnly deposited in the fa¬ 
mily sepulchre, {sepulchrum, tumulus, monu- 
mentum!) 

When the remains of the deceased were 
laid in the tomb, those present were sprinkled 
by a priest with pure water, {aqua lustralis,) 


180 


ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. 



from a branch of olive, or laurel, to purify 
them. The friends, as a further purification, 
when they returned home, after being sprinkled 
with water, stepped over a fire, which was 
called suffitis. The house was also purified. 

On the ninth day after the funeral a sacri¬ 
fice was performed called novendiale, with 
which these solemnities were concluded. 

Oblatipns and sacrifices to the dead were 
afterwards made, both occasionally and at 
stated periods. A feast was commonly addedy 
called silicarmum. 

The Romans in mourning kept themselves 
at home, avoiding every entertainment and 
amusement, neither cutting their hair nor 
beard, clothed in black, laying aside every 
kind of ornament. Under the emperors, how¬ 
ever, women wore white in mourning. 

In a public mourning the magistrates laid 
aside their badge of office. 

After the introduction of Christianity into 
the empire, the practice of burning the dead 
fell into disuse. 



DIVISION OF TIME. 


181 


CHAPTER VII. 

TIME, MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEY OP THE 
ROMANS. 


Section I. 

Division of Time. 

Romulus is said to have divided the year 
into ten months, the first of which was called 
Martins, March, from Mars, his supposed 
father; the second, Aprilis, April, either from 
the Greek name of Venus (Acp^oSitt)) or because 
then trees and flowers open (aperio) their buds; 
the third, Mains, May, from Maia, the mother 
of Mercury; the fourth, Junins, June, from 
the goddess Juno. The rest were named 
from their number, Quintilis, Sextilis, Septem¬ 
ber, October, November, and December. Quin¬ 
tilis was afterwards called Julius, July, from 
Julius Caesar; and Sextilis was called Augus¬ 
tus, August, from Augustus Caesar. 

Numa added two months to these ten, 
called Januarius, January, from Janus; and 
Februarius, February, because the people were 
then purified (februabatur) by an expiatory 
sacrifice (februalia) from the sins of the whole 
16 



182 


ANTIQUITIES OF ROME, 


year; for this was anciently the last month in 
the year. 

Niima, in imitation of the Greeks, divided 
the year into twelve months, according to the 
course of the moon, consisting in all of three 
hundred and fifty-four days. He afterwards 
added one day more to make the number odd, 
which was thought the more fortunate. But 
as ten days and some hours were still wanting 
to make the lunar year correspond to the 
course of the sun, he appointed that every 
other year an extraordinary month called Meri¬ 
sis Intercalaris should be inserted between the 
23d and 24th days of February. The interca¬ 
lating of this month was left to the discretion 
of the pontijices, who by inserting more or 
fewer days made the current year longer or 
shorter, as was most convenient for themselves 
or friends. Julius CsBsar when he became 
master of the state resolved to put an end to 
this disorder, and abolishing this intercalary 
month, he adjusted the year according to the 
course of the sun, and assigned to each month 
the number of days which they still contain. 
To make matters proceed regularly henceforth, 
he inserted in the current year, besides the in¬ 
tercalary month of twenty-three days, two ex- 
traordinary months between November and 
December, the one of thirty-three the other 
of thirty-four days; so that this year, which 
was called the last year of cortfusion, con¬ 
sisted of sixteen months, or four hundred and 


DIVISION OF TIME. 


183 


forty-five days. After this, from the first of 
the ensuing January, the number of months 
was regular. All this was effected by the 
care and skill of Sosigenes, a celebrated as¬ 
tronomer of Alexandria, whom Csesar had 
brought to Rome for that purpose A. U. 707. 
This is the celebrated Julian, or solar year, 
which continues in use to this day in all Chris¬ 
tian countries. 

The months were divided into three parts, 
kalends, {kalendce,) nones, {nonce,) and ides, 
{ulus) The first day of the month was called 
the kalends, the fifth day the nones, and the 
thirteenth day the ides; except in March, May, 
July, and October, when the nones fell on the 
seventh, and the ides on the fifteenth. 

The ancient Romans did not divide their 
time into weeks as we do, in imitation of the 
Jews. The custom of dividing into weeks 
{hehdomades) was introduced under the empe¬ 
rors. The days of the week were named 
from the planets as they still are. Dies Solis, 
Sunday ; Dies Liince, Monday; Dies Mortis, 
Tuesday; Dies Mercurii, Wednesday; Dies 
Thursday; Dies Veneris, Friday; Dies 
Saturni, Saturday. 

The Romans, in marking the days of the 
month, counted backward. Thus they called 
the last day of December, Pridie Kalendas, 
that is, the day before the kalends of January ; 
the day before that, or the thirtieth of Decem¬ 
ber, they called Tertio KaL Jan., or the third 


184 


ANTIQUITIES OP HOME. 


day before the kalends of January, and so on,, 
to the thirteenth, when came the ides of De¬ 
cember. Thus the 14th day of April, June, 
September, and November, was marked XVIII 
kal. of the following month ; the 15th, XVII 
kal., &c. 

In leap year, that is, when February has 
twenty-nine days, which happens every fourth 
year, both the 24th and 25th days of that 
month were marked 8exti Kalendas Martii^ 
the sixth kalends of March, that is, the sixth 
day before the kalends of March ; and hence 
this year was called Bissextilis, 

The Romans counted in the day on which 
they dated, and called the second day before 
the kalends. Nones or Ides, the third, (tertio,) 
and so on. And as the kalends are not the 
last day of the current month, but the first of 
the month following, we must take this addi¬ 
tional day into consideration in accommoda¬ 
ting our calendar to their dates. 

The Roman date of any given day of our 
months, may be found by the following method. 

Rule. Add one to the number of the Nones 
and Ides, and two to the number of days in the 
month for the Kalends, then subtract the num¬ 
ber of the day: e. g. to find the Roman date 
of the 21st of July: to 31, add 2=33; from 
this take 21, the given day of the month, and 
the remainder 12 is the Roman date 12, Kah 
Aug., that is, the 12th day before the kalends 
of August. 


DIVISION OF TIME. 


185 


A TABLE OF THE KALENDS, NONES, AND IDES. 


Days of the 
, Month. 

January, August, 
December. 

March, May, 
July, October. 

April, June, Sep¬ 
tember, No¬ 
vember. 

February. 

1 

Kalenda;. 

Kalendaj. 

Kalendte. 

Kalenda;. 

2 

4 Nonas. 

6 Nonas. 

4 Nonas. 

4 Nonas. 

3 

3 Nonas. 

5 Nonas. 

3 Nonas. 

3 Nonas. 

4 

Pridie Nonas. 

4 Nonas. 

Pridie Nonas. 

Prid.Nonas 

5 

NoniB. 

3 Nonas. 

NoiliE. 

Nonae. 

6 

8 Idus. 

Pridie Nonas. 

8 Idus. 

8 Idus. 

i 

7 Idas. ] 

Notue. 

7 Idus. 

7 Idus. 

8 

6 Idus. 

8 Idus. 

6 Idus. * 

6 Idus. 

9 

5 Idus. 

7 Idus. 

5 Idus. 

5 Idus. 

10 

4 Idus. 

6 Idus. 

4 Idus. 

4 Idus. 

11 

3 Idus. 

5 Idus. 

3 Idus. 

3 Idus. 

12 

Piidie Idus. 

4 Idus. 

Pridie Idus. 

Prid. Idus. 

13 

Idus. 

3 Idus. 

Idus. 

Idus. 

14 

19 Kaleiulas. 

Pridie Idus. 

18 Kalendas. 

16 Kal. 

15 

18 Kalendas. 

Idus. 

17 Kal. 

15 Kal. 

16 

17 Kalendas. 

17 Kalendas. 

16 Kal. 

14 Kal. 

17 

16 Kalendas. 

16 Kal. 

15 Kal. 

13 Kal. 

18 

15 Kalendas. 

15 Kal. 

14 Kal. 

12 Kal. 

19 

14 Kalendas. 

14 Kal. 

13 Kal. 

11 Kal. 

20 

13 Kalendas. 

13 Kal. 

12 Kal. 

10 Kal. 

21 

12 Kalendas. 

12 Kal. 

11 Kal. 

9 Kal. 

22 

11 Kalendas. 

11 Kal. 

10 Kal. 

8 Kal. 

23 

10 Kalendas. 

10 Kal. 

9 Kal. 

7 Kal. 

24 

9 Kalendas. 

9 Kal. 

8 Kal. 

6 Kal. 

25 

8 Kalendas. 

8 Kal. 

7 Kal. 

5 Kal. 

26 

7 Kalendas. 

7 Kal. 

6 Kal. 

4 Kal. 

27 

6 Kalendas. 

6 Kal. 

5 Kal. 

3 Kal. 

28 

5 Kalendas. 

5 Kal. 

4 Kal. 

Pridie Kal. 

29 

4 Kalendas. 

4 Kal. 

3 Kal. 


30 

3 Kalendas. 

3 Kal. 

Pridie Kalendas. 


31 

Pridie Kalendas. 

Pridie Kalendas. 




The day among the Romans was either civil 
or natural. The civil day {dies civilis) was 
from midnight to midnight. The natural day 
{dies naturalis) was from the rising to the set¬ 
ting of the sun. It was divided into twelve 
hours, which of course were of different length 
at different seasons of the year. They mea¬ 
sured time by dials, {horologice solari^;) and 













186 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


water time-pieces, {clepsydrce^ wliicli dis¬ 
charged a certain quantity of water in certain 
times, and served by night as well as by day. 


Section II. 

Dry and Liquid Measures, and Measures of 
Length and Weights. 

The measure of capacity mosi; frequently 
mentioned by Roman authors is the amphora. 
This was a liquid measure of more than seven 
gallons, but was sometimes used by writers 
with reference to no certain measure. 

The Roman Dry Measures were, in English 
Corn Measure— 


Pecks. Oals. Pt. Cub. Inch. 


1 Ligula. 


0 l-48th 

0 

1 Cyathus, or 4 Ligulse,. 

. 0 0 

0 l-12tli 

0 l-25th 

1 Acetabulum, orl 1-2 Cyathi,. 

. 0 0 

0 l-8th 

0 3-50tli3 

1 Hemiiia, or4 Acetabula,. 

. 0 0 

0 1-2 

0 6 25tlis 

1 Sextarius, or 2 Heminte,. 

.0 0 

1 

0 12-25ths 

1 Semi-Modius, or 2 Sextarii, . 

. 0 1 

0 

3 21-25tli3 

1 Modi us, or 2 Seiai-Modii,. 


0 

7 17-25th3 

The Roman Liquid Measures 

1 were. 

in Eng- 

lish Wine Measure — 

Gals. 

Pts. 

Cuh. Inch. 

1 Ligula,. 


0 l -48th 

0 3 23tlis 

1 Cyathus, or 4 Ligulae,. 


0 l-12th 

0 12-25(03 

1 Acetabulum, or 1 1-2 Cyathi,. 


0 l-8th 

0 17-251 lis 

1 (iuartarius,_or 2 Acetabula,. 

. 0 

0 l-4th 

1 10-25ths 

1 llemina, or 2 Ouartarii,. 


0 1-2 

2 20-25ths 

1 Sextarius, or 2 Ileminte,. 


1 

5 16-25th3 

1 Congius, or 6 Sextarii,. 


7 

4 47-50th3 

1 TJ rna, or 4 Congii,. 

1 Amphora, or 2 Unite,. 


4 1-2 

5 1-3 


1 

10 2-3d3 

1 Culeus, or 20 Amphorae,. 


3 

11 10-200tUs 




















MEASURES OF LENGTH, ETC. 


187 


The quadrantal is the same as the amphora. 
The Cadus, Congiarius, and Dolium, denote no 
certain measure, but merely a cask or keg. 

The Sexiarius was divided into twelve equal 
parts called cyatld, and therefore the calices 
were called sextantes, qiiadrantes, &;c., accord¬ 
ing to the number of cyathi they contained. 

The Roman Measures of Length reduced to 
English were— 


Eng. 

paces. 

Ft. 

Inches. 

1 Digitus transversus, or finger's breadth^... 
1 Uncia, or thumb's breadth, or inch, ) 
or 1 1-3 Digiti, J 

. 0 

0 

0 18-25th3 

0 

0 

0 24-25ths 

1 Palmus Minor, or hand's breadth, or 3 UnciiE 

1, 0 

0 

2 45-50th3 

1 Pes, or foot, or 4 Palmi,. 

. 0 

0 

11 15-25th3 

1 Palmipes, or 1 1-4 Pedes,. 

1 Cubitus, or 1 1-5 Palmipedes,. 

. 0 

1 

2 1-2 

0 

1 

5 10-25ths 

1 Gradus, or 1 2-5tlis Cubili,. 

. 0 

o 

5 l-KKtths 

1 Passiis, or pace, or 2 Gradus,. 

0 

4 

10 lAOllis 

1 Stadium, or furlong, or I'm Passus,. 

. 120 

4 

4 1-2 

1 Milliare, or mile, or 8 Stadia,. 

. 967 

0 

0 


The ancient Roman Land Measure wa& 


100 Square Roman feet equal 1 Scrupulum of land 


4 Sci upula, or 400 Roman feet square, 1 Sextulus 

1 l-Sth Sextuli, or 480 “ “ “ 1 Actus 

6 Sextuli, or5 Actus, or 52,400 “ “ “ lUnciaofland 

6 Uiicise, or 14,400 “ “ “ 1 Square Actus 

2 Square Actus, or 28,800 “ “ “ 1 Jiigerum or acre 

3 .lugera,. 1 llerediuin 

100 Heredia,.1 Centuria. 


There was a measure called clima, equal to 
3600 square feet. 

The principal Roman weight was the AS 
or libi^a, a pound, divided into twelve parts or 
ounces, {uncicB;) thus, uncia, l-12th of an as, 
or one ounce ; sextans, 1-Gth ; quadrans, l-4th ; 
triens, l-3d ; quincunx, 5-12ths ; semis, 1-2 ; 
septuiix, 7-12ths ; hcs or hessis, 2-3ds ; dodrans. 













188 


ANTIQUITIES OP ROME. 


3-4ths; dextans or decunx, 5-6ths; deunx, 
ll-12ths of an as. 

The Uncia was also divided thus : semuncia^ 
1-2 of an uncia or ounce ; duella, l-3d ; sicili- 
cus l-4th; sextula^ l-6th; drachma, l-8th; 
hemisesela, ]-12th; treniissis, scrupulus, scri~ 
pulum, l-24th of an ounce. 

As was applied to any thing divided into 
twelve parts, as to an acre, to liquid measure, 
to money, &c. 

The pound (lihra) was equal to 10 ounces, 
IS pennyweights, 13 5-7lhs grains of English 
Troy weight, or nearly 12 ounces Avoirdupois. 


Section III. 

Aloney of the Romans. 

The Romans, like other ancient nations, at 
first had no coined money, {pecunia signata,) 
but either exchanged commodities with one 
another, or used a certain weight of uncoined 
brass, {ces rude) or other metal. 

Servius Tullius first stamped pieces of brass 
with the image of cattle, oxen, swine, &c., 
(pecudes, whence the word pecunia, money.) 
Silver was first coined A. U. 484; and gold 
sixty-two years after. Silver money, howev¬ 
er, seems to have been in use at Rome before 



MONEY OF THE ROMANS. 


189 


that time, but of foreign coinage. The Ro¬ 
man coins were then only of brass. 

The first brass coin {aummus cBvis) was call¬ 
ed as, and was of a pound weight. The oth¬ 
ers were seniisses, trientes, quadrantes, and sex- 
tantes. These coins at first had the full weight 
which their names imported. 

In the first Punic war the as was coined 
weighing only one-sixth of a pound, or two 
ounces ; in the second Punic war, it was made 
to weigh only one ounce; and afterwards, A. 
U. 563, half an ounce. 

The sum of three asses was called tressis ; 
of ten, decussis ; of twenty, vicessis; and so on 
to a hundred, centussis. 

The silver coins were— Denarius, the value 
of which was ten asses, marked with letter 
X.— Quinarius, five asses, marked V.—and 
Sestertius, two asses and a half, commonly 
marked by the letters L. L. S. for libra libra 
semis, or by abbreviation, H. S. ; and often 
called nummus, because it was in most com¬ 
mon use. 

From every pound of silver were coined 
100 denarii, so that at first, a pound of silver 
was equal in value to a thousand pounds of 
brass. But when the weight of the as was 
diminished, it bore the same proportion to the 
denarius as before, till it was reduced to one 
ounce, and then a denarius was valued at six¬ 
teen asses ; a quinarius. for eight asses; and a 
sestertius for four; which proportion continued 


190 


ANTiaUITIES OF ROME. 


when the as v/as reduced to half an ounce. 
But the weight of silver money also varied 
under the emperors. 

There were silver coins of less value ; li- 
hella, equivalent to an as or tenth part of a 
denarius ; sembella, worth half a pound of brass, 
or the twentieth part of a denarius; andierwn- 
cius, the fortieth part of a denarius. 

A golden coin was first struck at Rome in 
the second Punic war, A. U. 546, and was 
called aureus ; equal in weight to two denarii 
and a quinarius, and in value to twenty-five 
denarii or one hundred sestertii. The common 
rate of gold to silver during the republic was 
tenfold. 

Money was coined in the temple of Juno 
Moneta ; whence our word money. 

There are several Grecian coins mentioned 
by Roman writers, some of them equal to Ro¬ 
man coins and some not: drachma, equal to a 
denarius ; mina, equal to a Roman lihra ; ta- 
lentum, equal to sixty lihrcB; tetradrachma, 
equal to four denarii; oholus, the sixth part of 
a denarius. 

The Romans usually computed money by 
sestertii or sestertia. Sestertius is the name of 
a coin, and sestertium the name only of a sum. 
When a numeral adjective is joined with ses¬ 
tertii it means just so many sesterces ; thus, 
decern sestertii, ten sesterces; but when it is 
'joined with sestertia, it means so many thou 


MONEY OF THE ROMANS. 


191 


sand sestertii-; thus decern sestertia, ten thou¬ 
sand sesterces. 

If a numeral adjective of another case is 
joined to the genitive plural, it denotes so 
many thousand, as, decern sestertium^ ten thou¬ 
sand sesterces. If a numeral adverb is joined, 
it denotes so many hundred thousand, as decies 
sesterlium, ten hundred thousand sesterces. If 
the numeral adverb stand by itself, the signifi¬ 
cation is the same. 

When sums are marked by letters, if the 
letters have a line over them, they signify so 
many hundred thousand sesterces; thus H. S. 
M. C. denotes the sum of 1,100 times 100,000 
sesterces, i. e. 110,000,000, whereas H. S. M. C. 
Avithout the line over them, signifies only 1,100 
sesterces. 

When the numbers are distinguished by 
points, in two or three orders, the first towards 
the right hand signifies units ; the second, thou¬ 
sands ; and the third, hundred thousands; thus, 
III. XII. DC. HS. denotes 300,000; 12,000; 
and 600 H. S. ; in all making 312,600 sesterces. 

The Romans sometimes expressed sums by 
talents or pounds, {talenta or lihrce,) but the 
common computation was by sestertii or nunimi. 

The Roman coins reduced to Federal money: 

BRASS. 

A Quadrans, or teruncius, is equal to ^0.00.35 of a cent. 

A Triens, _ - . 0.00.47 “ 

A Semissis, ^ . 0.00.71 

An As or ees, - - - 0.01.43 “ 


192 


ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. 


SILVER. 


A Teruncius, 

A Sernbella, 

A Libella, 

A Sestertius, or Nummus, 
A Quinarius, 

A Denarius, 


0.00.3.5 of a cent. 
0.00.71 
0 01.43 « 

0.03.57 “ 

0.07.17 « 

0.14.35 


GOLD. 


An Aureus, 


3.58.79 of a cent. 


The interest of money was called fcenus or 
iisura ; the capital or principal, caput or sors. 
When the interest at the end of the year was 
added to the principal, and likewise yielded 
interest, it was anatocismus anniversarius, com¬ 
pound interest. 

The interest allowed by the laws of the 
twelve tables was only one per cent., but these 
and other regulations were eluded by the art 
of the usurers, and in the year A. U. 795, the 
interest was twelve per cent., though it fell, 
upon the death of Antony and Cleopatra, to 
four per cent. 

The Romans usually paid money by the in¬ 
tervention of a banker, {mensarius.) The in¬ 
terest of money was commonly paid on the 
kalends. 











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ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


17 



















ANTIQUITIES OF GREECE. 


CHAPTER I. 

GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY. 


Section I. 

A General Geographical View of Greece^ in 
Boundaries and Principal Divisions. 

The name of Hellas, which afterwards 
served to designate the whole of what we now 
call Greece, was originally applied only to a 
particular district of Thessaly. At that early 
period, as we are informed by Thucydides, the 
common appellation of Hellenes (Greeks) had 
not yet been received in that wide acceptation 
which was subsequently attached to it, but 
each separate district had its distinctive name, 
derived generally from the clan or tribe by 
which it was possessed, or from the chieftain 




196 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


who was regarded as the progenitor of their 
race. 

It is difficult to say, with precision, what are 
the boundaries of ancient Greece. By some, 
Illyria, Macedonia, and Epirus, are excluded 
from its territory; while, by others, they are 
considered as forming a part of it. As these 
kingdoms, especially Macedonia, exerted a 
great influence upon the affairs of Greece, 
and participated in some measure in her coun¬ 
sels, we think it will be proper to include them 
in her boundaries. 

Greece then may be considered as consisting 
of three general divisions :—the first or north¬ 
ern division; comprising, Epirus, Illyria, Ma¬ 
cedonia, and Thrace;—the second or middle 
division, called Graecia Propria; comprehend¬ 
ing Thessalia, Arcanania and its islands, JEto- 
lia, Doris, Locris, Phocis, Boeotia, Attica, Me- 
garis, and Euboea ;—the third, or southern di¬ 
vision, called Peloponnesus; including Achaia, 
Corinthia, Argolis, Arcadia, Elis, Messenia, 
and Laconia, together with the adjacent 
islands. 

Greece had for its northern boundary, the 
great chain of mountains which commences 
near the head of the Hadriatic sea, and ter¬ 
minates at the Euxine sea. This chain was 
nearly all included in what the ancients called 
HcBmus Montes, The eastern boundary was 
the iEgean sea, as also a small part of the 
Tuxine, and the straits which unite these 


ATHENS. 


197 


two seas with the intervening Propontis, or 
modern sea of Marmora. On the south it 
was bounded by the Cretan or Candian sea, 
and on the west, by the Ionian and Hadriatic 
seas. 

No part of Europe, if we except Switzer¬ 
land, is so mountainous throughout the whole 
of its extent as Greece. The ruggedness of 
its surface, however, gave additional sublimity 
as well as beauty to its scenery. Its rivers, 
though so much celebrated by the poets, are 
only small streams. There are but few lakes 
in Greece. 


Section II. 

Athens. 

The city of Athens, the capital of Attica, 
was founded by Cecrops, an Egyptian. At 
first it was called Cecropia, from the name of 
its founder; afterwards, Athens, (A^Tjva*,) in 
honor of the goddess Minerva, whom the Greeks 
called A^^vt], and who received the privilege 
of giving the city a name in preference to 
Neptune. The Athenians thought themselves 
the most ancient nation of Greece, and sup¬ 
posed themselves the original inhabitants of At¬ 
tica. Hence they called themselves auroy^ovsg, 
“ produced from the same earth which they in- 
17 * 



198 


ANTiaUITIES OP GREECE. 


habited yriysvsTg, “ sons of the earthand 
Tsmyscr, “ grasshoppers,” because those insects 
were supposed to have sprung from the ground. 

It was in the time of Pericles that Athens 
attained the summit of its beauty, property, 
and power. At this period, the whole of 
Athens, with its three ports, Piraeus, Munychia, 
and Phalerum, connected by means of the 
celebrated long walls, formed one vast city 
within an enclosure of massive fortifications. 
The whole of this circumference was about 
one hundred and seventy-four stadia, or twenty- 
two English miles. The number of gates be¬ 
longing to ancient Athens is not known ; but 
the existence of nine has been ascertained by 
classical writers. 

The Acropolis, or Cecropian citadel, was 
situated on an elevated rock, which terminated 
abruptly in precipices on every side, except 
the western, whence alone it was accessible. 
On this side stood the Propylcea (portico or 
entrance) of the Acropolis. This was erected 
by Pericles, and intended as an entrance to 
the Parthenon, but was considered to rival 
that edifice in beauty and dimensions. It was 
of the most massy construction, and consisted 
of a great vestibule, with a front of six Doric 
columns. Beyond this vestibule was another, 
supported by six pillars of the Ionic order: 
these formed the approach to the five gates or 
entrances of the citadel. The whole structure 
is said to have been five years in progress, and 


ATHENS. 


199 


to have cost 2000 talents, equivalent to about 
2,000,000 dollars. 

The Parthenon^ or temple of Minerva, was 
situated on the summit of the Acropolis, being 
far elevated above the Propylaja and adjacent 
edifices. In beauty and magnificence it far 
surpassed all other buildings of the kind, and 
was constructed entirely of Pentelic marble. 
The architect was Ictinus. It consisted of a 
cell surrounded with a peristyle, having eight 
Doric columns in the two fronts, and seven¬ 
teen in the sides. The total elevation of the 
temple was sixty-five feet from the ground, 
its length two hundred and twenty-eight, and 
breadth one hundred and two feet. It was 
enriched within and without with matchless 
works of art executed by the first sculptors of 
Greece. The statue of Minerva was of ivory 
and gold, and was the noblest work of the re¬ 
nowned Phidias, if we except his statue of 
Jupiter Olympius, in Elis. This statue of Mi¬ 
nerva was thirty-nine feet in height and 
clothed in a robe reaching to the feet. On 
the walls of the Parthenon were sculptured 
many battles in which the Athenians had been 
engaged. 

On the southeast of the Acropolis stood the 
celebrated Dionysiac theatre^ or theatre of Bac¬ 
chus, in which were the statues of many of 
the tragic and comic writers. It was in this 
edifice that dramatic contests were decided. 
It was capable of containing thirty thousand 


200 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


spectators. Near this was the Odeum, a mu¬ 
sic-theatre, built by Pericles, and richly de¬ 
corated with columns which terminated in a 
point. On the northeast side of the Acropolis 
was the Prytaneum, in which the laws of So¬ 
lon were deposited. In this building were 
several statues ; among others, that of Vesta, 
before which a lamp was kept constantly 
burning. Here the Presidents of the senate 
(‘71'^u‘ramf) resorted for the transaction of busi¬ 
ness. On the northwest of the Acropolis was 
the Areopagus, or Plill of Mars, so called, ac¬ 
cording to some, because Mars had been cited 
thither to trial for the murder of a son of Nep¬ 
tune. This celebrated court consisted of an 
open space in which was an altar dedicated to 
Minerva, and two rude seats of stone, for the 
accused and his accuser. The Pnyx was 
situated on rising ground opposite the Areo¬ 
pagus and near the walls of the city. In the 
days of Athenian greatness, it was the usual 
place of assembly for the people, especially 
during elections. The celebrated Bema, from 
which the orators addressed the people, was a 
simple pulpit of stone. The Museum was an¬ 
other elevation in the same vicinity. It is said 
to have received its name from the poet Mu- 
saeus, who was interred there. 

The old Forum, (Ayo^a,) formed part of the 
interior Ceramicus. It was very spacious, 
and adorned with buildings dedicated to the 
worship of the gods. It was here that public 


ATHENS. 


201 


assemblies of the people were held. But its 
chief use was for the resort of persons to buy 
and sell; and as every trade had different 
places assigned to it, the forum was divided 
into different parts, distinguished from each 
other by the names of the several articles ex¬ 
hibited for sale. One quarter was called Cy- 
clus, (KuxXoc:,) where slaves were bought, and 
also meat, fish, and other provisions. We also 
read of the women’s market, (ywaixsla. dyo^a,) 
where they sold women’s apparel;—of the 
fish-market, (/p^&uoVwXi^ A particular 

stand was allotted to each vender, which he 
was not permitted to change. The time when 
goods were exposed for sale was called “ full 
market,” (‘^rX'^&outfa dyo^d,) from the great num¬ 
ber of persons assembled. To this place the 
inhabitants resorted every day to the average 
number of twenty thousand. The Stoa Pcecile, 
near the old forum, was so called from the 
celebrated paintings it contained, executed by 
the best artists. It was in this portico, (tf-roa,) 
that Zeno first opened his school. Hence his 
disciples were called Stoics. There were also 
many other porticoes (rfroal) in various parts of 
the city. North of the Areopagus was the 
celebrated temple of Theseus, erected in honor 
of this hero, after the battle of Marathon. It 
was esteemed by the Athenians in the highest 
reverence, and possessed an inviolable sanc¬ 
tuary. The interior was decorated with paint¬ 
ings, representing the achievements of Theseus. 


202 ^ 


ANTIQUITIES OF GREECE. 


This noble structure, which has suffered but 
little from the injuries of time, has been con¬ 
verted into a Christian church. The Olym- 
peum was one of the most ancient of the sa¬ 
cred edifices of Athens. Pisistratus raised a 
more magnificent structure on the site of the 
old building. Near the river Ilissus was the 
Stadium^ erected for the celebration of games. 
It was a huge structure rising in the shape of 
an amphitheatre, and extended to the banks of 
the river. It was built of Pentelic marble, 
and was of such stupendous magnitude that 
Pausanias says it might be taken for a moun¬ 
tain on the banks of the Ilissus. 

The Pantheon was a temple consecrated to 
all the gods, as its name indicates. It was a 
most magnificent structure, and was support¬ 
ed by one hundred and twenty columns of 
Phrygian marble. On the outside were engra¬ 
ven the histories of all the gods. 

The Ceramicus was an extensive space of 
ground which contained many temples, thea¬ 
tres, porticoes, &c. It was divided into the 
outer and inner Ceramicus. The latter was 
full of public buildings, and was within the 
walls. The former was without the walls, 
and contained the tombs of the most illustri¬ 
ous warriors and statesmen of Athens. The 
road was lined as far as the Academj^ on each 
side, with sepulchres of the gallant Athenians 
who had fallen in battle. At the termination 
of this burying ground was the Academy. It 


ATHENS. 


203 


was surrounded with a wall, and adorned with 
groves, walks, and fountains, as well as stat¬ 
ues and altars to many of the gods. Here 
Plato first opened his school. Without the en¬ 
closure a monument was erected to his mem¬ 
ory. 

The Cynosarges was a space of ground con¬ 
secrated to Hercules, and contained a gym¬ 
nasium, and groves frequented by philosophers. 

The Lyceum was a sacred enclosure dedica¬ 
ted to Apollo, near the river Ilissus. It was 
adorned with fountains, groves, and buildings, 
and was the usual place of exercise for the 
Athenian youths who devoted themselves to 
military pursuits. It was also frequented by 
philosophers, and those fond of retirement and 
study. It was especially the favorite walk of 
Aristotle and his disciples, who thence obtain¬ 
ed the name of Peripatetics.^ The Lyceum, 
the Academy, and the Cynosarges were the 
three principal gymnasia, appropriated to the 
education of youth. 

The Gymnasia of the Greeks were not sin¬ 
gle edifices, but a number of buildings united, 
so capacious as to contain several thousand 
persons. They were erected and maintained 
at the public expense, for the use of philoso¬ 
phers, rhetoricians, &c.,and for pugilists, wrest¬ 
lers, and others, who might exercise themselves 
at the same time without suffering any inter- 


* From ircpt and rarfo), to walk about. 


204 


ANTiaUlTlES OF GREECE. 


raption. They consisted principally of the 
following divisions:—1.2<roa», ‘ porticoes,’ which 
were filled with ‘ apartments,’ furnished 

with seats, and fitted for study and discourse. 
2. ’E(pi 9 §gia, ‘ play-grounds,’ where the i(p'^/3oi, or 
youths exercised. 3. ’A<i^o6vr7]piu ‘ un¬ 

dressing rooms.’ 4. HaXaf&r^a, ‘ the palaestra,’ 
or places for wrestling, the floors of which 
were covered with dust or gravel to prevent 
the combatants from slipping. 5. 

Xovr^a, ‘ hot’ and ‘ cold baths.’ 6. HraSiUf ‘ the 
stadia,’ large semicircles in which exercises 
were performed. 

The Long Walls, which connected Athens 
with its several ports, were first planned and 
commenced by Themistocles after the Persian 
war. One of these walls was called the Piraic, 
and sometimes the ‘ northern wall;’ the other, 
Phileric, or ‘ southern wall.’ The length of the 
northern wall was about four and a half miles, 
and of the southern, nearly four miles. The 
height of each was sixty feet. Phalerum, be¬ 
fore the time of Themistocles, had been the 
usual port for ships. But that great statesman 
perceived the superior advantages that the 
Piraeus offered, and accordingly it was fitted 
up. It was the principal naval station, and 
was very commodious, containing three small¬ 
er harbors. It was well covered with build¬ 
ings, forums, stoae, storehouses, &c. The port 
of Munychia was an important position on ac¬ 
count of the security it afforded to the mari- 


ePARTA OR LACEDAEMON. 


2i05 


time dependencies of Athens, and was always 
well fortified. Phalerum was the most an¬ 
cient of the three harbors, but after the erec¬ 
tion of the docks (o^m-oi) in the Piraeus, it ceased 
to be of any importance in a maritime view. 

There were two rivers which supplied 
Athens with water, the principal one of which 
was the Ilissus, on the east side of the city. 
The other, the Cephissus, was smaller, and on 
the western side, it ran under the long walls. 

The two principal mountains were the An- 
chesmus and Hymettus. The former was not 
very elevated, and had a statue of Jupiter upon 
its summit. Hymettus is more celebrated. It 
was famous for its fragrant flowers, and excel¬ 
lent honey. It produced good marble, and, ac¬ 
cording to some, contained silver mines. 


Section III. 

Sparta or Lacedcemon. 

Sparta was situated a little north of the 
centre of Laconia, on the west bank of the 
Eurotas. During the most flourishing period 
of the Spartan history, it contained but few 
public buildings, and those were not noted 
either for their size or their architectural beau¬ 
ty. It continued without walls during this 
sam^ period, Lycurgus having inspired his 
18 



206 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


countrymen with the idea, that the real de¬ 
fence of a town consisted chiefly in the valor 
of its citizens. When Sparta became subject 
to despotic rulers, fortifications were erected, 
which rendered the town capable of sustain¬ 
ing a regular siege. It was then about six 
miles in circumference. It was encompassed 
with vineyards, olive or plane trees, gardens, 
and summer houses. The city was composed 
of five villages, which were separated from 
each other by intervals of different extent, and 
each of which was occupied by one of the five 
tribes of Sparta. 

The Forum was situated towards the north¬ 
ern part of the city, and contained the Senate- 
House, and the Halls of the Ephori^ Nomophy- 
laces, and Bidicei.* The Persian Portico was 
in this part of the city, and was so called from 
its having been erected from the spoils taken 
from that people. The Chorus was that part 
of the Forum in which dances were performed 
in honor of Apollo during the gymnastic games 
of the youth. Near this stood the temples of 
Tellus and Jupiter. North of these was the 
temple of Diana. The Scias was a building 
where the assemblies of the people were held. 
On the south of the Forum were the Cenotaph 
of Brasidas, (a Lacedaemonian general.) and 
a Theatre of white marble ; and opposite to it 
were the Tombs of Pausanias and Leonidas. 
Orations were here annually recited, and games 
* See Chap. Ill, Sec. II. 


SPARTA OR LACEDAEMON. 


207 


celebrated, in which none but Spartans were 
admitted to contend for prizes. The names 
of those who fought in the battles against the 
Persians, at Thermopylae, were inscribed on a 
pillar near the monument. South of the 
Theatre was the Dromus, or race-course of 
the Spartan youths, which contained two 
gymnasia. 

Sparta did not possess a citadel noted for 
its elevation; but as there were several hills 
without the city, the highest of them was called 
the Acropolis. Here was the temple of Mi- 
nerva. This edifice was decorated with ele¬ 
gant specimens of sculpture in brass, repre¬ 
senting the labors of Hercules, the exploits of 
the Tyndaridae, of Perseus, and the birth of 
Minerva. 

Of all the Grecians, the Spartans lived in 
the most plain and simple manner. Their 
houses were free from ornament, though of 
great solidity ; and the monuments which they 
erected to their heroes, were by no means ex¬ 
pensive or magnificent. 


208 


ANTIQUITIES OP GREECE. 


CHAPTER II. 

CIVIL GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL ECONOMY OP 
ATHENS. 


Section L 

Inhabitants of Athens. 

The inhabitants of Athens were divided into 
three ranks or classes:—1. citizens^ (‘Tt'oXIVa;;) 
—2. resident foreigners, (fxsVoixoi ;)—3. servants 
or slaves, (5ouXoi.) The number of the inhabi¬ 
tants has been variously estimated. In the 
census taken by Demetrius Phalerius, in the 
year 314 B. C., the number amounted to 21,000 
citizens; 10,000 foreigners, and 40,000 slaves. 
In its highest prosperity Athens probably con¬ 
tained about 80,000 citizens, from 20,000 to 
40,000 foreigners, and 400,000 slaves. 

A citizen could only be such by birth or 
adoption. To be a natural denizen of Athens 
it was necessary to be born of Athenian pa¬ 
rents, both free. The people could confer the 
freedom of the city upon strangers ; and those 
who were so adopted, enjoyed most of the 
rights and privileges of natural citizens. The 
citizens alone enjoyed the privileges of being 


INHABITANTS OF ATHENS. 


209 


present at all public assemblies, and of sharing 
in the government of the state. When the 
young men had attained the age of twenty, 
they were enrolled upon the list of citizens, 
after having taken a solemn oath; and it was 
in virtue of that public and solemn act that 
they became members of the state. 

Solon divided the citizens into four classes, 
according to their rank and fortune :—1. The 
‘rffvraxorfiofjLi^i.avoj, ‘ live-hundred-measure-men,’ or 
those who had an annual income of five hun¬ 
dred measures ;—2. The ‘ knights,’ those 
who could furnish a horse equipped, or were 
worth three hundred medimni or measures, 
(about four hundred and thirty-one bushels ;) 
—3. The ^svyTrai, ‘ zeugitae,’ who were worth 
one hundred and fifty measures;—4. The 
‘ menials,’ the lowest class of the people, who 
were not eligible to any office under govern¬ 
ment. 

The second class of the inhabitants were 
the jxsVoixoj, ‘ sojourners,’ ‘ foreigners,’ residing 
in the city. They had no share in the govern¬ 
ment, nor votes in the public assemblies, and 
could not be admitted to any public office. 
They were obliged to submit to any enact¬ 
ment the citizens might choose to pass against 
them. They were, however, permitted to 
place themselves under the protection of some 
citizen, who acted as their patron, (‘Tr^oo'raryjj,) 
and to whom they were obliged, in turn, to 
render certain duties and services. If they 
18* 


210 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


failed in performing what was required, their 
property was confiscated. The head of every 
family was obliged to pay into the public 
treasury the sum of twelve drachms for him¬ 
self, and six for his children. In default of 
payment he was exposed to sale as a slave. 

The third class of the inhabitants were the 
servants or slaves. This class was distin¬ 
guished into two kinds :—1. Those who on ac¬ 
count of poverty were obliged to go into ser¬ 
vice, and who were called and ‘ifs’karm. 

These could change their masters at pleasure. 
—2. Those who were wholly in the power of 
their masters, and might be sold as any other 
kind of property. These were either such as 
had been taken prisoners in war, or bought 
of such as trafficked in them, or the descend¬ 
ants of those already in a state of bondage. 
The number of slaves (5ouXoj) in Athens was 
very great. Even the poorer citizens had a 
slave for the care of their household affairs. 
They were treated generally with too much 
rigor, though at Athens their condition was 
much better than in any other Grecian city. 
If grievously oppressed, they could fly for refuge 
to the temple of Theseus, nor could any force 
them from it. If they were treated with too 
much severity and inhumanity, they could 
bring an action Sixri) against their mas¬ 

ters, who were obliged to sell them to other 
citizens, if the fact were sufficiently proved. 
The slaves were not allowed to wear arms ex- 


MAGISTRATES. 


211 


cept in cases of extreme danger from an 
enemy, when they were sometimes armed for 
the defence of the state. Their punishments 
were very severe. 


Section II. 

Magistrates. 

By the laws of Solon, no person could hold 
any office in the Athenian government unless 
he possessed considerable estates. This law 
was annulled by Aristides, who made every 
free citizen eligible to any office. Before a 
person could be nominated to any office, he was 
obliged to undergo an examination before the 
^Xiadrai'.* The magistrates were divided into 
three kinds, distinguished by the different 
methods of their election. 1. The 
‘ chirotoneti,’ who received their office from 
the people, and who were so called because 
they were elected by the holding up of hands, 
(xsi^oTov'ia.) 2. The xXrjpwroi, ‘ cleroti,’ were cho¬ 
sen by lot, (xXtj^oi,) drawn by the Ssd/xo^sVai, who 
inscribed the name of every candidate on a 
tablet of brass, and put it into an urn with 
black and white beans, and those were elected 
whose tablets were drawn out with white 


* See Section VI. 



212 


ANTIQUITIES OF GREECE. 


beans. 3. The ai^srol, * haereti/ who were ex¬ 
traordinary officers, appointed by particular 
tribes, to superintend any public affairs. The 
Xo/Kfral, ‘logistae,’ were those who examined 
the public accounts, and were ten in number. 

The first and most important of the magis¬ 
tracies was that of the a^ovrsg, ‘ archons,’ com¬ 
posed of nine of the principal citizens, whose 
office was annual. They were elected by the 
votes of the citizens, but it was requisite that 
they should be persons of good character, am¬ 
ple fortune, and descendants from native citi¬ 
zens. They were invested with the adminis¬ 
tration of the laws, and received all public in¬ 
formations and complaints. They were dis¬ 
tinguished by name and office. The first was 
called the apx^^, ‘ archon,’ by way of eminence, 
and was president of the body. His offices 
Avere, to superintend some feasts, to take cog¬ 
nizance of lawsuits amongst relations, to pro¬ 
tect orphans, and to regulate the dramatic en¬ 
tertainments. The second was called the 
(3a(fiksvs, ‘ king.’ It was his duty to assist in 
the celebration of some festivals, to decide in 
some religious causes, and to offer sacrifices 
for the good of the state. The third was call¬ 
ed the ‘ polemarch,’ whose office 

was, the management of war, and the juris¬ 
diction over strangers. The six other archons 
were called the ^so'fxoSrsVai, ‘ thesmothetae,’ whose 
duty it was to enforce the due observance of 
the laws, and the execution of justice. 


MAGISTRATES. 


213 


Each of the first three archons selected two 
assistants called ‘n'a^sSol, to aid them in their 
duties. The eu^uvoj, ‘ euthuni,’ were ten officers 
appointed to assist the archons, to examine ac¬ 
counts, impose fines, &c. 

The Eleven (m k'vSsxa) were elected from the 
ten tribes, one from each, which, together with 
their clerk, completed the number. 

Their duty was to arrest persons suspected of 
theft or robbery, and to put them to death if 
they confessed their guilt, otherwise to prose¬ 
cute them in a judicial manner. 

The (puXa^i, ‘phylarchs,’ were those who 
presided over the tribes, one over each. They 
took care of the public money of their tribes, 
and managed all their concerns. 

The ‘ demarchs,’ were invested with 

a like power in the boroughs, (5^,ao».) 

The voixo&sTui, ‘ nomothetee,’ were one thousand 
in number. Their office was not to enact 
new laws, but to inspect the old ones; and if 
they found any useless, or detrimental to the 
interests of the community, they caused them 
to be annulled by the people. 

The ‘ ambassadors,’ were chosen by 

the senate, and sometimes by the people, to 
treat with foreign states. Occasionally they 
were sent with full power to act as they should 
judge most conducive to the welfare and honor 
of the republic. But their power was gener¬ 
ally restricted. They were usually attended 


214 


ANTiaUITIES OF GfREECB. 


by heralds, who sometimes went on 

embassies themselves. 

All the various magistrates, before entering 
upon their office, took a solemn oath to be 
faithful in discharging their duties. The ar- 
chons were prohibited from receiving presents. 


Section III. 

Public Assemblies, 

The Athenian Assembly {hxXr^dla) was a 
meeting of all the citizens, (‘roXirai,) with whom, 
W'hen convoked according to law, were lodged 
all the interests of the state, such as taking 
cognizance of the enactments of the senate, 
making laws, appointing magistrates, declar¬ 
ing war, concluding peace, ratifying treaties 
and alliances, granting the freedom of the city 
to foreigners, &c. The assemblies were of 
two kinds; the ‘ ordinary,’ (ixxXy^&la xu^»a,) and 
the ‘ extraordinary,’ (ixxXr,(fia (fvyxXTjrog.) 

The ordinary assemblies were held four 
times every Prytanea,*on the 11th, 20th, 30th, 
and 33d, of the thirty-six days that each class 
of the Prytanes were in office. 

The extraordinary assemblies were summon¬ 
ed by the Prytanes, when any civil matters 


* See Section IV. 




PUBLIC ASSEMBLIES. 


215 


were to be settled with greater dispatch than 
could be done in the ordinary assemblies. 
When any great calamity threatened the 
commonwealth, they Avere summoned by the 
(fr^ctrrjj'oi, the <3roX£fJiap;)^i, or the xrj^xsg. 

On account of the frequency of those assem¬ 
blies, there was often a reluctance on the part 
of the citizens to attend them, and public offi¬ 
cers (Xoyirfraj) were appointed to compel their 
attendance. These officers closed all the gates 
excepting that which led to the meeting, and 
went through the forum, with cords dyed red, 
marking all whom they found there ; and those 
thus marked had a fine to pay. 

The ‘jr^vravsis, the J'TTKj'raTTjg, and the •if^osS^oi had 
the management of these assemblies. The 
Prytanes always put up, in some conspicuous 
place, a public notice, in which 

was an account of all the aftairs to be discussed. 
The Proedri proposed to the people the sub¬ 
jects on which they were to deliberate. The 
Epistates was the president, and was chosen 
by lot from the Proedri. Pie gave the people 
permission to vote by a signal. 

Before the assembly entered upon business, 
the place was purified by the sacrifice of a 
young pig. The public crier then order¬ 

ed silence, and addressed a solemn prayer to 
the gods for knowledge and understanding 
necessary to wise deliberations. The subject 
to be considered (-rr^o^ojXsu/xa) was then proposed 
by the Epistates, and those above fifty years 


216 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


of age were first invited to speak upon it, and 
afterwards any other citizens over thirty. The 
speaking being finished, the vote was taken, 
and this was generally done by the people’s 
stretching forth their hands, (^sj^orovi'a.) Some¬ 
times they voted privately by pebbles, ( 4 '^ 9 o»,) 
or beans, (xuaixo^,) which they cast into urns, 
(xot^oj.) The Proedri examined the votes, and 
proclaimed the result; and the decree 
became a law. On the decree were written 
the name of the orator or senator who had 
given his opinion, and the name of the tribe to 
which the ‘r^vravrjs belonged. Thus the supreme 
authority appears to have been lodged in the 
people. 

The places of meeting for the assembly 
were the Forum, the Pnyx, or the Theatre of 
Bacchus. There were no fixed places for 
holding the extraordinary assemblies. 


Section IV. 

The Council or Senate of Five Hundred, 

The people of Athens had, as we have seen, 
a very great share and authority in the gov¬ 
ernment. In order that their decisions should 
be made with ^ more wisdom and maturity, 
Solon instituted a council, or senate, consisting 
of four hundred members, afterwards increas- 



THE COUNCIL OF FIVE HUNDRED. 


217 


ed by Clisthenes to five hundred, (h (SovM ^ rwv 
rrsvraxoifiojv.) This senate was composed of fifty 
persons of the best character, elected from 
each of the ten tribes in the following manner. 
The Phylarch of every tribe handed in the 
name of every citizen of good character in his 
district over thirty years of age. These names 
were inscribed on small tablets (‘jrivaxta) and 
put into an urn. Into another urn were put 
as many beans, fifty of which were white and 
the rest black. Those whose names were 
drawn out with the white beans were elected. 

This senate assembled every day, except on 
the days appointed for the festivals. Each 
tribe in its turn furnished those who were to 
preside in it, called and this rank 

was decided by lot. This presidency continu¬ 
ed thirty-five or thirty-six days. This divided 
the Attic year into ten parts, each of which 
was called a ‘rpuravg/a. These Prytanes, were 
divided into five committees of ten, each of 
which presided in turn one week, and the presi¬ 
dents of each week were called ‘jr^osd^i. He who 
was president for the day was called 
and presided in the senate, as well as in the 
assembly of the peole. He was intrusted with 
the public seal, as also with the keys of the 
citadel and treasury. 

The senators, before they assembled, offered 
a sacrifice to Jupiter and Minerva. The pre¬ 
sident proposed the business that was to come 
before them. Every one was permitted to 
19 


218 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


give his opinion in his turn, always standing. 
The act was then drawn up in writing and 
read with a loud voice. Each senator then 
gave his vote privately by putting a bean into 
the urn. If the number of the white beans 
exceeded the black, the question passed; 
otherwise it was rejected. It was afterwards 
laid before the assembly of the people, where, 
if it was received and approved, it became a 
law ; if not, its force continued only one year. 

The election of senators was annual. They 
were the highest council of the nation, and 
upon them devolved the whole care of the re¬ 
public. 


Section V. 

The Court of Areopagus. 

This court took its name from the place 
where it held its meetings, which was upon 
an eminence near the citadel, called A^sio^^ayog, 
the Hill of Mars. This court was composed 
of such members as had been archons. The 
number of members was not fixed; at certain 
times they amounted to two or three hundred. 
They held their office during life, but before 
they could be admitted, they had to undergo 
a strict examination into their public and pri¬ 
vate characters; and if, after his admission, 
any one was convicted of immorality, he was 



THE COURT OF AREOPAGUS. 


219 


expelled from the body. In consequence of 
this strictness in scrutinizing the character of 
its members, the judges of Areopagus sustain¬ 
ed for centuries a merited reputation for wis¬ 
dom, probity, and equity. It took cognizance 
of almost all crimes, vices, and immoralities ; 
and all innovations, either in politics or in re¬ 
ligion. To its care were committed the keep¬ 
ing and inspection of the laws, the manage¬ 
ment of the public funds, and the education of 
youth. Idleness, especially, it severely pun¬ 
ished, and it had power to inquire into the oc¬ 
cupation of every citizen of Athens. 

The Areopagites (’AisioirayjVou) met almost 
daily, in the open air, and that they might not 
be influenced in their decisions by the sight of 
the parties engaged in the suit, they held their 
meetings at night. The trials were preceded 
by imposing and solemn ceremonies. Sacri¬ 
fices were offered, and the two parties, placed 
amid the victims, took a most solemn oath, 
calling down the vengeance of heaven upon 
themselves and their families if they testified 
falsely. The accused then seated himsei'f 
upon the stone called dvai^sia, ‘ impudence or 
clvairia, ‘ innocence f and the accuser upon the 
one called ‘ injury.’ The advocates for 
either party were not allowed to make any 
appeal to the passions of the judges, but were 
required to state the simple facts, and accom¬ 
pany their statements with proof. The judges 
gave their opinions secretly. They voted with 


220 


ANTiaUITIES OP GREECE. 


black and white flints; and that these might 
be distinguished in the dark, holes were made 
in the black, but not in the white. The white 
acquitted ; the black condemned. These they 
put into two urns ; the white into ‘ the urn of 
mercy/ (6 iXsov,) the black into ‘ the urn of 
death/ (6 ^avarou.) If the votes were equal, an 
inferior officer put one into the urn of mercy 
in favor of the accused. 


Section VI. 

Other Courts of Justice,and Judicial Proceedings. 

There were different tribunals, according to 
the different nature of the matters to be ad¬ 
judged ; but appeals might be brought to the 
people from all decrees of the other judges. 
There were ten courts of justice besides the 
Areopagus, four of which took cognizance of 
actions in which blood was concerned, {knri ruv 
(pwvjxwv •rr^ayiiaTuv,) and the other six, of civil 
matters, (sW <ro5v SruxonxC^v.) One court (s-jt/ IlaX- 
Xa^jw) took cognizance of cases of uninten¬ 
tional homicides ; another, (the hi AsXcpmu.) of 
such murders as were confessed to be commit¬ 
ted by permission of the laws, as in cases of 
self-defence ; and another, (hi n^ravsic^,) of 
cases of death where the party had been killed 
by inanimate things, such as trees, stones, &c. 

The most celebrated court in civil affairs 



OTHER COURTS OF JUSTICE, ETC. 221 

was the ^jXjala, which was held in the open air, 
and exposed to the sun’s rays, whence its name, 
(from 'ijXi'oc:, ‘the sun.’) The judges of the court 
were called TjXiatfrai, ‘ heliastae ;’ their number 
was not always the same, being greater or 
smaller according to the importance of the 
cause. When a person wished to bring an 
action against any one, he took his name to a 
magistrate, and if the cause was of a proper 
kind to be brought into a court of justice, the 
plaintiff (5/c!oxwv) summoned the defendant {(psv- 
7 wv) to appear before the magistrate by a bai¬ 
liff, (xXrirTjg,) Then the parties met before the 
magistrate with their witnesses, and the plain¬ 
tiff took an oath (^^ouixodla) to bring no false 
accusation, and the defendant took an oath 
(dvrw,aotfi'a) that his answer should be true, or 
that he was innocent. 

Before the trial commenced each party was 
obliged to deposit a certain sum of money 
‘ravsTa) with the magistrate who presented the 
cause in court. A fine (s^u^sXict) was imposed 
on those who could not prove the indictment 
they had presented. The public crier (5c%u|) 
opened the court by reading the indictment. 
If the accused did not appear, judgment was 
passed upon him, and if he did not within ten 
days come and show sufficient excuse for ab¬ 
sence, this sentence was valid. The indict¬ 
ment before conviction was called aWla ; after 
conviction, ; and after the sentence, dSi- 


19 * 


222 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


Witnesses were required to swear to the 
fact, to deny it, or that they knew any thing 
about it, or to pay a fine of 1000 drachms, (#167.) 
None but citizens were admitted as witnesses. 
Slaves were allowed to give evidence only 
when examined by torture. 

The parties pleaded their cause either in 
person, or employed advocates to do it for 
them. The time allowed for the hearing was 
generally fixed, and a water-clock (xXs4^u5^a) 
regulated its duration. The judges then 
brought in their verdict. This was given by 
sea-shells, (xo‘^kai,) or pebbles, (v^ry^oi,) or beans, 
(xvaixoi.) If there was a greater number of 
the white beans, the accused was acquitted : 
if a majority of the black, he was condemned. 
If he was found guilty of a capital crime, he 
was delivered into the hands of ‘ the Eleven’ 
(o» svSsxa) for punishment. If sentenced to pay 
a fine, he was delivered to the ‘ collectors,’ 
(^^axro^ss ;) and if unable to pay it, he was con¬ 
demned to perpetual imprisonment. 


Section VII. 

Judgments and Accusations, 

The judgments among the Athenians were 
of two kinds;—1. Public, (Syjtxorixal,) such as 
referred to crimes which injured more imme- 



JUDGIMENTS AND ACCUSATIONS. 


223 


diately the republic, called xurriyo^iat ;—2. Pri¬ 
vate, (iSiurixalf) which comprised all disputes 
between individuals, and were called SUai. 

The accusation called was that pre¬ 

ferred against those who were charged with 
any of the following crimes :— (povog, ‘ murder,^ 
which was punished with death ; — r^aviJ.u ix 
Afiovo/aj:, * a wound inflicted intentionally— 
‘ arson f—(pa^'xaxov, ‘ poison f— l3o6Xsv(fis, 
‘ conspiracy —Is^otfuX/a, ‘ sacrilege —ddijSsicCf 
‘ impiety f— Tr^oSoffla, ‘ treason f—‘ re¬ 
fusing to serve in war—Xsi-Trotfr^anov, ‘ deser¬ 
tion from the army—Xsjcro-Totfiov, ‘ leaving one’s 
post—5siX»a, ‘ cowardice —Xei-s'ovaurjov, ‘ deser¬ 
tion from the fleet—ro <n^v ‘ losing 

one’s shield.’ 

The judgment called cpadtg was the detection 
and information given of any secret and con¬ 
cealed crime. ’EjfTayysXja was the name of 
the process instituted against those who com¬ 
mitted crimes against which there was no 
express law. It generally referred to great 
public offences, by which the state was en¬ 
dangered. 

Amongst the private judgments y^ere a^/xou 
S'lxrjj ‘ action for injury— xarriyo^ias Slxrj^ ‘ action 
for slander;’— dixiag Sixri, ‘ action for assault;’— 
xXo'jrrjg SIxrjf ‘ action for theft;’ which last was 
punished with death, if committed upon any 
of the public temples, altars, or gymnasia. 
But if one was convicted of stealing from a 
private person, he was obliged to make resti- 


224 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


tution to double the amount of the property 
stolen, and was moreover punished with in¬ 
famy, 


Section VIIL 

Punishments and Rewards. 

Of the punishments not capital among the 
Athenians, the principal were these ;—1. Zrnua, 
which means any punishment, but often sig¬ 
nified any pecuniary ‘ fine f—2. ’An.aja, ‘ in- 
famy,’ or public disgrace, and loss of all honors, 
and public offices ;—3. AouXe/a, ‘ servitude,’ 
which could be inflicted only on the driiioi, ‘the 
disgraced,’ the foreigners, and freed servants; 
—4. 2rjy/xara, ‘brand-marks,’which were made 
with a red-hot iron on the foreheads or hands 
of runaway slaves, or any notorious malefac¬ 
tor ;—5. St^Xt), ‘ the pillar,’ on which was re¬ 
corded the crime of the offender, and then ex¬ 
posed to public view ;—6. ‘ chains’ or 

‘ fetters,’ and ^'so'/j.wrr/^iov, ‘ prison ;’—7. ^uyri, ‘ ex¬ 
ile,’ but the exiled person could be recalled by 
the same power that banished him ;— S. ’Orfr^a- 
xkTixoc:, ‘ ostracism.’ This last differed from ‘ ex¬ 
ile’ {(pvy^) in these respects ; the exiled were 
banished from their country forever, and their 
property confiscated ; but the sentence of the 
ostracised was limited to ten years, after which 



PUNISHMENTS AND REWARDS. 


225 


they could return and enjoy their estates, which 
were, in the mean time, preserved for them. 
The process of this ostracising was as fol¬ 
lows. Every man took ‘ a shell,’ (oVr^axov,) and 
having marked upon it the name of the person 
whom he wished to banish, carried it to a cer¬ 
tain part of the forum. When the people had 
finished giving in their votes, the archons 
counted all the shells, and if less than six 
thousand, the ostracism was void. But if not, 
they sorted them according to the names writ¬ 
ten upon them, and he whose name had been 
written by the majority, had the sentence of 
banishment pronounced upon him. 

Death (©avaro^) was inflicted upon criminals 
in various ways :—1. H»(poc:, ‘ the sword,’ by be¬ 
heading ;—2. ‘ the rope,’ by hanging or 

strangling;—3. ^a^f^axov, ‘ poison’ ;—4. K^ri.avoV, 
‘ a precipice,’ from which the criminal was 
thrown;—5. Tu,a<;r'ava, ‘ clubs’ of wood, with 
which he was beaten to death ;—0. 2rau^oV, 
‘ the cross,’ upon which the criminal w^s 
nailed;—7. Ba^a&^ov, ‘ a deep pit,’ with sharp 
spikes at the top to prevent the escape of the 
condemned, and others at the bottom to pierce 
and torture him;—8. AiSo,5oXja, ‘ lapidation,’ or 
stoning to death;—9. Kara‘!rovr»o'p,og, ‘ drowning 
—10. nu|, ‘ burning.’ 

While the laws inflicted the severest penal¬ 
ties upon offenders, in order to deter men from 
the commission of crime, they, on the other 
hand, conferred honors and rewards on those 


226 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


who merited them by the practice of great 
and illustrious deeds. The following were 
the principal rewards:—1. U^osS^ia, ‘ the 
first place’ at all exhibitions, banquets, and 
public meetings.—2. E/xwv, ‘a picture’ or 
‘ statue’ erected in some public place in the 
city.—3. Urs^avo*, ‘ crowns’ of various materials. 
—4. ArsXsiUf ‘immunity from taxes,’ except 
from such as were required for carrying on 
war, and building ships, from which no man 
was excused except the nine archons.—5. SiTta, 
‘7r'a|a(j'»r/a akrjdis sv n^uravs/w, ‘ a public dinner or 
entertainment in the Prytaneum,’ given to 
those who had done distinguished service to 
the republic, and particularly to those who had 
been ambassadors, {‘rr^sdlSsTg.) When Athens 
enjoyed her highest glory it was uncommon to 
bestow these honors ; but afterwards they be¬ 
came more common, and consequently less 
valued. 


Section IX. 

Revenues and Administration of Finance. 

The revenues of the Athenians are gener¬ 
ally classed under four heads.—1. The duties 
{HXr]) arising from agriculture, the sale of 
woods, the produce of the silver mines, the 
duties upon the export and import of merchan¬ 
dise, and the taxes upon property and foreign- 



REVENUES AND ADMINISTRATION OF FINANCE. 227 


ers.—2. The tributes of the allied or subjected 
states, (cpo^oi.)—3. The extraordinary taxes 
levied in pressing occasions and emergencies, 
as war, &c., (sjtfipo^a.)—4. The fines (riixTjixara) 
imposed upon persons by the judges for vari¬ 
ous misdemeanors, and the proceeds of confis¬ 
cated property, ((57)a»oV^ara.) A tenth part of 
these was consecrated to Minerva, and a fifti¬ 
eth to the other divinities. The tributes of 
the allies ((po^oj) was by far the most produc¬ 
tive source of revenue. The mines were 
farmed to individuals, and worked by slaves. 
The commerce of the Athenians was con¬ 
siderable. 

These different revenues were expended in 
paying the troops; building and fitting out 
fleets ; erecting, repairing, and adorning pub¬ 
lic edifices, temples, walls, forts, and citadels; 
celebrating festivals and games, maintaining 
the poor and infirm, (dSumrotf) and the orphans 
whose fathers fell in battle ; and paying sala¬ 
ries of officers. 

All the regular expenditures and revenues 
were settled by laws enacted by the peo¬ 
ple. The senate superintended the different 
branches of public economy. The officers sub¬ 
ordinate to the senate were—1. The ‘n'uXrjrai, 

‘ poletae,’ those to whose care was intrusted 
every thing that the state sold or farmed out. 
They were ten in number. Under these Po- 
letae were assessors and collectors, 

(sxXoysig.) —2. The ‘ treasurers’ or ‘ re- 


228 


ANTIQUITIES OF GREECE. 


ceivers/ as also ‘ disbursers.’ These were also 
ten in number.—3. The and dvn'y^a:psTgf 

‘ the secretary’ and ‘ clerks’ of the treasury. 

Distinct from any of these officers was the 
‘ Treasurer of the Public Revenue,’ ('ra.a(a?, or 
i-riixsXiri^g xoivrjg ■Tr'^otfo^ou,) the most important of 
all the officers of finance, who was chosen 
by the vote of the people. His office was 
quadrennial. All the money that was received 
or expended passed through his hands or under 
his inspection. 

All persons to whom duties were let, and 
who had leases of the public revenues, were 
called <r£Xojva«, ‘ publicans’ or ‘ farmers.’ They 
were obliged to be persons in good credit, and 
to give bonds endorsed by other persons as se¬ 
curity for the payment of the money due on 
their leases. If they failed to pay at a stipu¬ 
lated time, they forfeited double the amount of 
the bond ; and if they failed entirely, they with 
their sureties were committed to prison, and 
their property confiscated. 


Section X. 

The Council of the Amphictyons, 

The celebrated Council of the Amphictyons 
is introduced here, though it was not peculiar 
to the Athenians, but common to all Greece. 
This council was a general congress of the 



TIIE COUNCIL OF THE AMPIIICTYONS. 229 


states and cities of Greece. The institution is 
attributed to Amphictyon, king of Athens, who 
gave it his name. It was composed of depu¬ 
ties, originally sent from twelve states or dis¬ 
tricts into which Greece was divided. Each 
state sent two deputies. The number of depu¬ 
ties was consequently twenty-four; but it was 
afterwards increased to thirty. They met twice 
a year, in the spring and autumn, sometimes 
at Thermopylae, and sometimes at Delphi; and, 
if affairs required, they met more frequently. 

The object of the institution of this council 
was to unite in a sacred fellowship the several 
nations of Greece which were represented in 
it, and to take measures for mutual protection 
from danger. The Amphictyons were also 
the protectors of the oracle of Delphi, and the 
guardians of the vast riches of that temple. 
They had full power to discuss and determine 
in all differences which might arise between 
the Amphictyonic cities, and to fine the culpa¬ 
ble nation in heavy penalties. They could 
employ not only the rigor of the laws in the 
execution of their decrees, but even raise 
troops, if it was necessary, to compel such as 
rebelled to submit to them. 

The influence of this council was very salu¬ 
tary. The deputies from all parts of Greece, 
thus meeting together to consult for their com¬ 
mon interest, could not but see the importance 
of union and harmony for the prosperity and 
preservation of their several states. 

20 


230 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


CHAPTER III. 

CIVIL GOVERNMENT OF THE LACEDAEMONIANS. 


Section I. 

Inhabitants of Laconia. 

The Leleges were generally regarded as the 
original inhabitants of Laconia. Afterwards 
the descendants of Hercules, together with the 
Dorians, overran the country, and imposed 
tributes upon the original cities, all of which 
submitted excepting Helos ; but this was soon 
conquered, and its inhabitants reduced to sla¬ 
very. Here was the origin of that large body 
of slaves among the Laced’semonians, called 
Helots, (EiXcjrsg.) 

Sparta was but little known among the 
states of Greece until the time of Lycurgus, 
its great legislator. He divided the people 
into five tribes—1. The Limnatae, (A/>]vaTa<;) 
2. The Cjmosureans, (Kwotj’ou^srj;)—3. The 
PitanataB, (n»=ravaTai;)—4.The iEgidae, ('AiysTSai ;) 
and 5. The Messoatae, (MgrftfoaTai.) 

The citizens were of two kinds: those who 
were born such, and those who were presented 



INHABITANTS OF LACONIA. 


231 


with the freedom of the city. In the early peri¬ 
ods of the Spartan history, in order that the num¬ 
ber of inhabitants might be increased, all stran¬ 
gers were admitted to the privilege of citizen¬ 
ship, but subsequently the freedom of the city 
was more sparingly bestowed. Children were 
considered as the property of the state, and 
parents were not permitted to educate theni 
as they pleased. As soon as a child was born, 
it was taken to a place called Lesche, {As(fx'n,) 
where the most aged persons of the tribe as¬ 
sembled to examine it. If it appeared well 
formed and healthy, orders were given for its 
education, and some portion of public land was 
assigned to it. But if it did not seem of a 
healthy and vigorous constitution, it was 
thrown into a gulf called 'A’lro^siai. 

At the age of seven the boys were enrolled 
in the classes called a.yi'kon ; at the age of 
eighteen they left the company of boys, and 
were admitted into that of the or young 

men. At the age of thirty they were classed 
among the men, and were allowed to 

undertake public offices. 

The inhabitants of the city were called 
2‘n'a^‘r<ara;, and enjoyed peculiar rights and 
privileges. The inhabitants of the country 
(Us^ioim) were in some respects subject to the 
citizens, yet were governed by the same laws, 
and w^ere equally eligible to the different offi¬ 
ces of state. The freemen of Sparta were 
divided into two classes, the o,aoioi, ‘ equals,’ and 


232 


ANTIQUITIES OP GREECE. 


the vnfoiisivsgf ‘ inferiors.’ The former could vote 
and enjoy all the honors of the state ; the lat¬ 
ter could vote, but were not eligible to office. 

The slaves were of two kinds, the (5ouXoi, who 
had been reduced to servitude, and the o/xsVai, 
who were born in slavery. The Helots 
f'EjXwrsc:) were distinguished from the slaves 
properly so called, since they had rather a 
middle rank between slaves and citizens. 
They greatly exceeded in number the freemen, 
and were to them a continual object of fear. 
The severest cruelties were inflicted upon 
them in order to keep them in subjection. They 
wore a particular kind of dress, that they 
might be more readily distinguished. They 
were employed in cultivating the lands, and 
in the various mechanic arts. They served as 
sailors on board the fleet; and in the army 
every heavy-armed soldier (o'^tXjVtj^) was attend¬ 
ed by one or more of them. 

The whole population of Laconia was about 
270,000 ; of whom the Helots formed about 
four-fifths of the entire number. 



MAGISTRATES OF SPARTA. KINGS, ETC. 233 
Section II. 

Magistrates of Sparta. The Kings. The 
Senate. The Ephori. 

The government of Sparta was vested in 
the Kings, the Senate, and the Ephori. There . 
were two kings, (d^aysVai,) and hence the es¬ 
tablished government was called a diarchy, 
(<5ia^^.) Euristhenes and Procles, twin sons 
of one of the kings of Laconia, succeeded to 
the throne of their father with equal authority, 
and they thus became the progenitors of a dou¬ 
ble line of kings. The power of the kings was 
extremely limited, especially in the city, and 
in time of peace. In war they had the com¬ 
mand of the fleet and army. They were the 
chief directors in all matters pertaining to re¬ 
ligion. They presided in the senate, and had 
each a vote there which was considered as 
equal to two. They appeared in public with¬ 
out a retinue or any display. 

The senate (ya^ouoria) consisted of the two 
kings and twenty-eight wise and aged men, 
('/s^ovTsg,) and was the supreme council of Sparta. 
No person could become a senator who had 
not been distinguished for his bravery and 
virtues, and arrived at the age of sixty years. 
The senators continued in office during life. 
All public business was proposed and examin¬ 
ed in the senate, and by it decrees were passed. 
But such decrees were not valid unless ratified 
by the people. 


20 * 


234 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


The whole executive power of Sparta was 
vested in the Ephori, (s^o^oi.) They were five 
in number. They could check and restrain 
the authority of the kings, and even imprison 
them, if guilty of irregularities. They had 
the management of the public money, and 
were the arbiters of peace and war. Their 
office was annual. They alone could summon 
the assemblies of the people, collect their suf¬ 
frages, and dissolve them. Citizens of every 
age and rank were subject to their inspection, 
and were amenable to their jurisdiction. 

Among the inferior magistrates were the 
who presided over the games called 
Platanista; the voiM:p6‘koLxsg:, ‘ guardians of the 
laws,’ who rewarded or punished persons ac¬ 
cording to law; the <r^ai6ovoiioi, persons who 
superintended the boys placed under their care 
at seven years of age ; the those 

who under the kings commanded the army; 
the a^ixotfuvoi, who observed the lives and man¬ 
ners of the Spartan women, and saw that the 
games and exercises were conducted with de¬ 
corum : the ‘Tf^opvoj, who extended their care to 
strangers and foreign ambassadors. 



PUBLIC ASSEMBLIES. 


235 


Section III. 

Public Assemblies. 

There were two public assemblies which 
convened at Sparta. The greater assembly 
(ixxXy](rla) was Composed of the kings, the sena¬ 
tors, and deputies chosen by all the inhabitants 
of Laconia. In this assembly were discussed 
all matters of great public interest. 

The less assembly (aixpa ixxXy](fta.) consisted 
only of the citizens of Sparta, and was held 
every month. It had the power of electing 
all the magistrates, and of ratifying decrees 
of the senate. Every Spartan capable of 
bearing arms could be present at this assembly; 
but he must have passed the age of thirty, be¬ 
fore he was permitted to give his opinion on 
any subject. The Ephori convened and pre¬ 
sided at every meeting. The place where 
the assembly met was in the open air, near 
the river Cnacion. The king and senators 
frequently gave their opinion, and also the 
Ephori. The question was decided by accla¬ 
mation, viva voce. If, however, after repeated 
trials the majority could not be ascertained, 
the two parties divided, and were counted. 



236 


ANTIQUITIES OF GREECE. 


Section IV. 

Rewards and Punishments, 

Honor was highly prized by the Spartan. 
He was taught from infancy to aspire after 
the reputation of a man of heroic valor, and 
unimpeachable virtue. The Ephori were ac¬ 
customed to appoint three officers, 
each of whom, selected one hundred men as 
chosen guards (Xo'yadss) from the best citizens ; 
and to be elected in this number, was con¬ 
sidered as the first honor in the city. The as¬ 
semblies paid the honor of rising up in the 
presence of the aged. The ‘Tr^ostJ^a, ‘ first seat’ 
in an assembly, was esteemed very honorable. 
Olive crowns were given as a reward for brave 
deeds. Statues and monuments, though not 
of a very costly kind, were erected in honor 
of the most distinguished. 

Among the punishments were, 1. Zyiimol, ‘ a 
pecuniary fine,’ which, if not paid, the person 
fined was driven into banishment2. KXoio^, 
‘ a collar of wood,’ which went round the neck 
and fastened the hands ;—3. MatfTiywtfjc:, ‘ whip¬ 
ping ;’—4. Kivrriais, ‘ goading ;’—5. ‘ in¬ 
famy’ or ‘ disgrace ;’—6. ‘ banishment,’ 

generally for the avoiding of penalties ;—7. 
B^o^q.c, ‘ strangling,’ with a rope ;—8. ©avaro^, 
‘ death,’ which was esteemed by the Spartans 
the mildest form of punishment. The infamy 


MANNER OF DECLARING WAR, ETC. 237 

(dri.a/a) was deemed more formidable than 
death. The ‘ disgraced’ (dn/xoi) were general¬ 
ly those who had fled in battle. They were 
deprived of citizenship, compelled to go naked 
through the forum in winter, and to suffer 
themselves to be beaten by any one whom 
they might meet. Death (damrog) was not in¬ 
flicted in public, but in the night, and in a 
certain part of the prison called dsxag 


CHAPTER IV. 

MILITARY AND NAVAL AFFAIRS OF THE GREEKS. 


Section I. 

Manner of Declaring War, and Levying 
Soldiers 

Before the Greeks engaged in war, they 
published a declaration of their injuries, and 
demanded satisfaction through their ambas¬ 
sadors, If the demands were not 

complied with, they sent heralds, (xij^oxsg,) who 
gave orders to the enemy to prepare for an 
invasion, and who sometimes threw a spear 




238 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


towards them in token of defiance. But the 
Greeks never engaged in war without encour¬ 
agement from the gods. The soothsayers and 
oracles were consulted, and no expense was 
spared to enlist the gods in their favor. They 
offered sacrifices and made great vows, which 
were to be fulfilled upon the event of the success 
of their undertaking. Some particular seasons 
were esteemed more favorable for a military en¬ 
terprise than others. An eclipse, or the appear¬ 
ance of a comet, would often deter them from 
marching, or engaging in battle. The Athe¬ 
nians would not march before ‘the seventh 
day,’ (svTog because this day was con¬ 

sidered more favorable than others. But the 
Lacedaemonians were the most scrupulous on 
this point. They never would march until the 
full moon ; for they thought that this planet 
had a special infiuence over their affairs, and 
when at the full, that it prospered their under¬ 
takings. 

The Grecian armies consisted of citizens, 
allies, mercenaries, and sometimes of slaves. 
The laws obliged every citizen, except the far¬ 
mers of the public revenue, (^sX^vaj,) to appear 
in arms when summoned by a proper magis¬ 
trate. No rank or station exempted any others 
from military service between the ages of 
eighteen and sixty. It was only, however, on 
extraordinary occasions, that the Athenians 
were required to serve in the army after the 
age of forty-five. The Athenians were not 


DIFFERENT SORTS OF SOLDIERS, ARMOR, &C. 239 

generally sent beyond the limits of Attica un¬ 
til twenty years of age ; and the Spartans 
were not usually sent to foreign wars until 
thirty. Citizens were obliged to enrol their 
names in a public register as soon as they ar¬ 
rived at the age of eighteen years, and the 
general could summon any of those thus en¬ 
rolled, to accompany him, after the people had 
determined to engage in a military expedition. 
This levy was called xaray^a^pyj, xaraXoyoj, or 
(fraroXoyiu. As soon as the youthful soldier was 
enrolled, he took the military oath, (o^o/xotfia,) 
and then enjoyed all the privileges, and was 
subject to the duties of a citizen. In early 
times the soldiers were at their own expense, 
but after the time of Pericles they were paid^ 


Section II. 

Different sorts of Soldiers ;—their Armor, 
and Arms. 

The Grecian armies were composed of three 
kinds of soldiers ;—1. ro ‘the infantry,* 

or ‘ foot soldiers —2. ro i'rr* oxv^ctruv, ‘ those 
who fought from chariots—3. ro i(p' <Wwv, ‘ the 
cavalry’ or ‘horsemen.’ The main strength 
was in the infantry, for it greatly exceeded in 
number the other classes. 

The infantry was divided into three classes, 
the oTrxrraj, the and the ^sXratfral. The 



240 


ANTiaUlTIES OF GREECE. 


o'lrXTrai, ‘ heavy-armed soldiers/ were designed 
for close fight. They wore heavy armor, and 
engaged with broad shields and long spears. 
They were placed in the centre of the army, 
and were arranged, generally, sixteen deep, 
and were furnished with a pike twenty-one feet 
long. In marching, every soldier occupied a 
space of six feet, but in advancing upon an 
enemy the ranks (‘rafsis) closed, and were not 
more than a foot or two distant from each 
other. 

The v^jXoi, * light-armed soldiers,’ fought with 
arrows, darts, javelins, and slings, and were 
stationed either in the van to begin the combat, 
or on the wings, to annoy the enemy’s cavalry. 
They were below the o^XPrai in point of dignity. 

The ^s\ra(fTai, ‘ targeteers,’ were so called 
from a small shield {^sXryi) which they bore. 
They held a middle rank between the 6-7rXirai 
and the nJ^jXo/, and were generally placed on 
the wings. 

The practice of fighting from chariots was 
very ancient among the Greeks. Their char¬ 
iots of war were drawn by two horses, but 
sometimes a third was added as leader, and 
was called rfcijacpojjoc:, because he governed the 
reins. Every chariot contained two men, one 
who was charioteer or driver, {^vioxos,) and the 
other the warrior, (<7raja»/3«,»>]«:,) who directed 
where to drive. There were chariots ‘ armed 
with scythes,’ ((5js‘7rav7](p6j)oi,) with which whole 
ranks of soldiers were cut down. 


DIFFERENT SORTS OF SOLDIERS, ARMOR, &C. 241 

The cavalry was esteemed the most honor¬ 
able service, particularly in the Athenian army. 
The number of the cavalry among the Athenians 
was small, being generally about one tenth of 
the number of the heavy-armed soldiers. The 
Spartan cavalry was still smaller in number. 
The Thessalonians had the largest number of 
cavalry. The horsemen had a variety of names, 
mostly derived from their armor or different 
modes of fighting. 

After the time of Alexander the Great, ele¬ 
phants were sometimes employed by the 
Greeks in battle. They bore large towers, 
which contained from ten to thirty soldiers, 
who harassed the enemy with missile wea¬ 
pons. But, though they often spread terror 
through the. ranks of the enemy, they could 
not always be depended upon with certainty; 
for they were very unmanageable, and some¬ 
times even would turn upon their own party. 

The armor, or defensive weapons of the 
Greeks, was generally made of brass, and cov¬ 
ered with frightful images. The helmet 
(‘rrsjixs^aXai'a, xojug, xjavoc:) was generally made of 
the skins of beasts, and received various 
names, according to the names of the different 
animals, as Xeovrgy], ‘ of lion’s skin ravgsiot, ‘ of 
bull’s hide,’ &c. These skins were always 
worn with the hair on them, and often the teeth 
of the animal were exposed, in order to inspire 
the more terror. The crest of the helmet 
(Xospog) was generally of horse-hair, and from 
21 


242 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


this circumstance the helmet itself is often 
called iWouj)f?, (fee. 

The cuirass or breastplate consisted 

of two parts, one of which was a defence to 
the breast, the other to the back. It was some¬ 
times made of leather, and of small twisted 
cords, but generally of brass, or some other 
metal. 

The girdle or belt (^wva or ^wfjoa) met the 
breastplate, and was a great defence to the 
lower part of the body. The greaves (wYjixiSss) 
were made of metal, and were used to defend 
the legs, the sides being closed with clasps. 

The shield or buckler (a(f‘7rlg) was sometimes 
made of wood, but generally of hides doubled 
into several folds, and strengthened by plates 
of metal. The boss (o[x(paXQg) was a prominent 
part in the middle. The Grecian shields were 
generally sufficiently large to defend the whole 
body. Their shape was usually round. The 
rrsKrT) was a small and light shield in the form 
of a half moon. 

The arms, or offensive weapons, of the Greeks 
were,—1. "Ey/o? and (56pu, ‘ the spear,’ or ‘ pike,’ 
made of wood and pointed with metal;—2. 

‘ the sword,’ which was hung in a belt 
which extended round the shoulders, and 
reached down to the thighs. Near it hung the 
dagger, <:raj/a,a^j»ov,fAap^aija ;—3. ^A^ivri,>iri\sxvg, ‘ the 
battle-axe,’ or ‘ pole-axe ;’—4. To^ov, ^ the bow,’ 
and ojo'roi, Joi, ‘ arrows ;’—5. Axov-m, ‘ darts 
or javelins;’—6.‘ the sling;’—7. IIu^o/SoXoi 


DIFFERENT SORTS OF SOLDIERS, ARMOR, ETC. 243 

Xk^ci, ‘fire-balls,’ which were made of wood, 
with spikes of iron, and to which were placed 
torches, hemp, pitch, and other combustible 
matter. These were ignited and hurled with 
great force into the ranks of the enemy. 

The f^ayyava or (/.ri^avat were arms or ma¬ 
chines ; used in sieges. There were several 
kinds of these. The xXjfAaxsj, ‘ scaling-ladders,’ 
were the oldest of these machines. The 
‘ battering-ram,’ was an engine with an iron 
head, resembling a ram’s head, which was em¬ 
ployed in battering down the walls of the en¬ 
emy. The common length of the battering- 
ram was about a hundred feet. It was gener¬ 
ally suspended by the middle, with ropes or 
chains fastened to a beam which lay across 
two posts ; and hanging thus equally bal¬ 
anced, it was violently thrust forward, drawn 
back, and again pushed forward, until by re¬ 
peated strokes it had broken down the w^all. 
The sXgVoXic:, ‘ city-taker,’ resembled the batter¬ 
ing ram, but was much larger. It was covered, 
and driven with ropes and wheels. The 
XsXwvy), testudo, or ‘ tortoise,’ was so called from 
its covering the soldiers as a tortoise is cover¬ 
ed by its shell. It was usually formed by the 
soldiers placing their shields, one over the 
other, in such a manner as to protect them 
completely from the missiles, when they ap¬ 
proached the walls of the enemy. Kara-TreXTai 
denote sometimes arrows, and sometimes the 
engines from which they were cast. Aj^o- 


244 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


(36\ot and ‘itsr^olSoXoi were engines for hurling 
stones. 


Section III. 

Military Officers, Division and Forms of the 
Army. 

In those states which were governed by- 
kings, it was customary for the king himself 
to lead the army; but on some occasions he 
might nominate a person of distinguished 
worth and valor to be his general, (‘rroX£fxapx°s.) 

At Athens each of the ten tribes nominated 
a commander ((fT^arrjyof) from their own body. 
Each of these ten generals was invested with 
equal power, and during any military enter¬ 
prise, they commanded alternately, each of 
them for a day. This practice of sending so 
many generals of equal power was discontin¬ 
ued after the time of Pericles. One or two of 
the ten generals were appointed to conduct 
the affairs of the army, while the remainder 
superintended various religious ceremonies at 
home. 

The ten tribes also each elected a 
who was in rank inferior only to the general, 
(tfTaryjpoc:.) They had the care of arranging 
the army before battle, of fixing the place for 
encampment, and of deciding upon the route 



MILITARY OFFICERS, ETC. 


245 


for the march. The eWa^oj, ‘ generals of the 
horsemen,’ were two in number, and had un¬ 
der them ten (pvXap-xot, who were nominated by 
the ten tribes. There were other inferior of¬ 
ficers, who took their names from the band or 
number of men under their command, as the 
Xo^avoi, 

At Sparta, there was but one general, who 
was usually one of the kings. He was ac¬ 
companied by some of the Ephori, who as¬ 
sisted him with their counsel. 

Among the Greeks, the whole army, inclu¬ 
ding both horse and foot, was called (rraria; the 
front or van, (xsVwrov, or ^vyog; the wings, 

xi^ara ; and the rear, g'o'p^aTog or ou^a. The 
crs/x-TTotf was a band of five soldiers, and its lead¬ 
er was called <r^sii‘:raSap<og. The Xo-xps consisted 
of sixteen soldiers, though sometimes it inclu¬ 
ded more than that number. The (fvXXoxK^iiog 
was a union of several Xop(;o». The karovTa^/a 
consisted of eight Xo^oi, or one hundred and 
twenty-eight men. Its leader was called 
harovTa^og. In every karovra^ja there were 
five attendants called sxzaxroiy from their not 
serving in the ranks. They were—1. The 
o'r^acoxvj^l, ‘ the crier’ or ‘ herald,’ who convey¬ 
ed the word of command;—2. The (iri}^sio:p6^og, 
‘the ensign,’ who gave the officers commands 
by signs when the noise of battle drowned the 
voice of the herald;—3. The ‘ the 

trumpeter,’ who signified to the soldiers the 
will of their officers when the noise rendered 
21 * 


246 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


the two former attendants useless ;—4. The 
v<n'7]^sTr]c;, ‘ the servant,’ who waited upon the 
soldiers to supply them with necessaries ;—5. 
The ou^ayogf ‘ the lieutenant,’ who brought up 
the rear, and took care that none of the sol¬ 
diers deserted, or were left behind. 

The term c^aKciyl was generally applied to 
the whole army drawn up in order of battle. 
Mmog (paXayyog was the whole length of the 
army from wing to wing; (paXayyo^ was its 
depth or extent from van to rear ; ^vyo! cpaXuyyog 
were the ranks taken according to the length of 
the phalanx ; or Xoxoi, were the files mea¬ 

sured according to its depth ; ‘nXajla (poCkayl was 
when it was broad in front and narrow in 
flank ; a[M(pi(fro[j^og cpaXay^ was when the soldiers 
were placed back to back, that they might 
face the enemy on every side when they were 
in danger of being surrounded. 

The £>^oXov, ‘the wedge,’ was the army 
drawn up in the form of the letter A, and the 
xojXsfx^oXov, ‘ shears,’ was the wedge reversed 
and without a base, in the form of a letter V, 
designed to receive -the attack of the wedge. 
The term ‘rXai(rtov was generally used when the 
army was drawn up in the form of a square. 
The iXr] represented the figure of an egg, in 
which form the Thessalians usually arranged 
their cavalry.' It is generally used for a troop 
of horse of any form and number. 

The LacedaBmonian army was divided into 
regiments (f^o^ai) which consisted of about four 


BATTLES, SIEGES, ETC. 


247 


hundred men. Over every (xo^a was a com¬ 
mander, called ‘TCoXiiia^og, 


Section IV. 

Battles, Signals, Treatment of the Slam, ^c. 

Military Punishments and Rewards, 

The Greeks never engaged in battle with¬ 
out having implored the favor of the gods by 
prayer and sacrifices. They also always re¬ 
freshed themselves with food before engaging. 
The commanders then marshalled the army 
in'order of battle, and the general addressed 
the soldiers, exhorting them to exert their ut¬ 
most courage and strength against their ene¬ 
mies. They then sang the hymn to Mars, 
(<ra«av,) and rushed to the engagement, with a 
general war-shout (dXaXay/xog) of the word 
clXaXd. 

The tfufx/^oXa, ‘signals,’ were of two kinds, 
those pronounced by the mouth, and those vis¬ 
ible to the eye. The (fCv^riiia, ‘ the watchword,’ 
was comipunicated by the general to the sub¬ 
ordinate officers. 

Another kind of signal, the crifJ^sTa, were en¬ 
signs or flags, the elevation of which was a 
sign to join battle, and the lowering of it, to 
desist. 



248 


ANTiaUITIES OP GREECE. 


The Greeks did not treat the dead bodies of 
their enemies with the least respect. They 
permitted them to remain on the field without 
interment, and would not even permit the 
conquered to bury their own dead without 
paying large sums for their ransom. But 
they were scrupulously careful to pay every 
honor to the bodies of their own soldiers who 
had lost their lives in fighting for their coun¬ 
try ; and it was deemed highly criminal to 
neglect to perform any funeral rites over them. 
Tombs were erected over them, on which were 
generally inscribed their names and exploits. 
If they had fallen in battle in a distant coun¬ 
try, their bodies were burned, and the ashes 
collected, and brought home to their relations, 
and deposited in the tombs of their ancestors. 

The prisoners who could not ransom them¬ 
selves were made slaves. The spoils (eva^a) were 
garments, arms, &c.; which if taken from the 
dead were called rfxuXa, if from the living, Xacpu^a. 
The general selected from the spoils what he 
preferred, and distributed the rest among oth¬ 
ers who had signalized themselves in the bat¬ 
tle. The LacedaBmonians, however, were for¬ 
bidden to take-the spoils of those whom they 
had vanquished, esteeming it unworjthy to be 
enriched by them. The best of the spoils were 
made an offering to the gods, either by con¬ 
suming them with fire, or suspending them in 
their temples. 

The commander generally punished the sol- 


DIFFERENT KINDS OF SHIPS, ETC. 


249 


diers for any delinquency as he thought pro¬ 
per. But in some cases the laws made pro¬ 
vision. Deserters (auTo,y-6Xo») were punished 
with death. Those who refused to serve in 
war, (ddT^arsvToi,) those w'ho quitted their ranks, 
(ksitorciXTOL,) and cowards, (5s»Xoj,) were obliged 
to sit three days in the forum, clothed in fe¬ 
male apparel; and had also a fine imposed 
upon them. Those who lost their shield were 
fined. 

As rewards of valor, private soldiers were 
invested with office, and the subordinate offi¬ 
cers were promoted. To some, crowns were 
presented, and others had the liberty of erect¬ 
ing statues to the gods, with inscriptions indi¬ 
cating their victory. Those who became disa¬ 
bled in the service of their country (aSumroi) 
were maintained at the public expense, if poor; 
and the children of those who had fallen in 
battle were educated at the charge of the 
state. 


Section V. 

Different Kinds of Ships ; with their Parts, 
Ornaments, ^c. 

The ships were of two kinds,—ships of war, 
(vx/Sf:,) and ships of commerce or merchant-men, 
(fK-x-hkg The former were long and nar¬ 

row, and generally rowed with oars; the lat- 



250 


ANTIQUITIES OF GREECE. 


ter were of an oval form, and in order to car¬ 
ry a greater quantity of commodities, were 
very wide in the middle, and had very broad 
bottoms. They were usually propelled with 
sails. The ships of war at first had but one 
rank of rowers on a side, but afterwards they 
had two, three, four, and more benches of row¬ 
ers on each side. These benches were placed 
above one another not in a vertical line, so as 
not to interfere with the rowers in the other 
benches. The Athenians generally used the 
triremes, which contained three benches 

of rowers. These benches were called roT^oi 
and c(5wXja. 

The principal parts of a ship were the prow 
;) the hull or hold, (fxstfozoiXo^;) and the 
stern, (‘jr^uf^va.) The prow (or fore-deck) was 
generally adorned with paintings, and differ¬ 
ent sculptures of gods, men, or animals. There 
were ornaments also on the stern. 

The rudder (‘jr'TjSaXjov) was fixed on the side 
of the hindermost deck, near the stern, but not 
directly in it. It resembled an oar in shape, 
but was longer, and broader at the extremity. 
In very large vessels, two rudders were some¬ 
times used, one of which was placed near the 
prow. 

The anchor {ayxo^a) was originally a large 
stone bored through the middle ; but after¬ 
wards those of iron were used, made very 
much like our modern anchors. Every ship 
had several masts, (t(rToi.) 




NAVAL OFFICERS, ETC. 


251 


The beak (l/x/3oXov) was of wood, strength¬ 
ened with brass, and fixed to the prow in or¬ 
der to injure the ships of the enemy. There 
w'ere also coverings (xaToqj^ayfxara) erected for 
the purpose of protecting the soldiers from the 
missiles of the enemy. 


Section VI. 

Naval Officers, Mariners, and Naval Engage¬ 
ments. 

The naval officers were of two kinds ; those 
who had charge of the whole crew and com¬ 
manded the vessel; and those who command¬ 
ed the soldiers. The ‘ captain,’ 

was the principal officer, and had the direc¬ 
tion of all marine affairs, and of the course of 
the whole fleet. The xv^s^i^Trig, ‘ pilot,’ had the 
care of the ship and the sailors. He sat in 
the stern to steer. 

The officer who commanded the soldiers or 
marines, was called ‘ captain of a 

trireme galley;’ and the commander of the 
whole fleet, tfroXa^o^, mva^og, or (fr^arriyog, ‘ the 
admiral,’ whose power was unlimited, and 
whose continuance in command depended on 
the will of the people. The i'jj^K^roXeug was the 
vice-admiral, and commanded under the ad¬ 
miral. 



252 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


The ships of war were furnished with row¬ 
ers, (i^koLt, xw'7i'7)X6raj;) sailors or mariners^ 
(vavTai;) and soldiers or marines, {ht{3arai.) 
The condition of the rowers was very hard 
and laborious. The sailors were exempted 
from rowing, but had the care of the sails, 
ropes, &c. The soldiers were in general arm¬ 
ed in the same manner as the land forces. 

In preparing for a naval action, the Greeks 
cleared the ships of every thing not necessary 
for the fight. As soon as the enemy appear¬ 
ed they lowered the sails, took down the masts, 
and managed the vessel entirely by oars. 

The admiral’s ship gave the signal for en¬ 
gaging by hanging out a gilded shield. Du¬ 
ring the elevation of this signal the battle con¬ 
tinued ; and the ships were directed what to 
do by particular movements of the shield. A 
grappling iron (x^i^ was used for fasten¬ 

ing the ships to each other. 


THE GRECIAN DEITIES, ETC. 


253 


CHAPTER V. 

RELIGION OF THE GREEKS. 


Section I. 

7%e Grecian Deities,—Sacred Places and 
Persons, 

The Grecian religion was idolatry in its 
grossest and widest acceptation. Their deities 
X^soi) were divided into the celestial, (s-irovgami,) 
the terrestrial, and the infernal, 

(xarax^ovm.) In this last class were also inclu¬ 
ded the marine deities, (&aXa(j'(j'jo<T) The twelve 
‘ great gods,’ fxsyaXw ^?o/, were Jupiter, (Zsug,) 
Neptune, (notfsi^cjv,) Mars, (’'A^»]?,) Apollo, (’A'ToX- 
Xwv,) Vulcan, ("H 9 c«(j'roff,) Mercury, 
who were masculine deities ; and Juno, (“H^a,) 
Minerva, (IlaXXa^,) Venus, ('A(p^oSir7],) Ceres, 
(AyjfiijTrip,) Diana, ("A^sixj^,) Vesta, ('Etfria,) who 
were feminine. For these gods, the Greeks 
had the highest veneration, and at Athens was 
an altar erected called /So^mg ruv SuSsxa ^swv, ‘the 
altar of the twelve gods.’ 

There were many other divinities of a na¬ 
ture between divine and human, (S&iixovsg.) 
Several men illustrious for their virtues and 
22 


254 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECF, 


exploits, were ranked among the gods. The 
gods of other nations were introduced, and al¬ 
tars erected to them, but this was not allowed 
without a public decree of the court of the Areo¬ 
pagus. Their divinities were in number, it i? 
supposed, more than three thousand.* Per¬ 
haps, however, this may include all the differ¬ 
ent names which were often applied to the 
same deity. 

In the earliest ages of the world men did 
not worship in temples, but in the open air, 
and on the summits of the highest mountains ; 
for as these appeared nearer the heavens, they 
thought that the gods could more readily hear 
their supplications. The Greeks early adopt¬ 
ed the custom of erecting temples. They 
were built with the greatest splendor and rich¬ 
est magnificence that art or wealth could pro¬ 
duce. They generally faced the east, as the 
rising sun was an object of adoration. 

Temples (vao» k^a) were dedicated to the 
worship of one divinity or more. The altar 
(fiuixos) was of various dimensions, according 
to the different gods to which it might be con¬ 
secrated. On the altar the offerings and sac¬ 
rifices were made. Altars were often erected 
under the shade of trees in groves. The tem¬ 
ples were adorned with statues of the gods, 
(dyaX.aa'ra,) and offerings, (dvaS^jaara.) Tem¬ 
ples, statues, and altars were esteemed so sa¬ 
cred, that to most of them was granted the 
* According to Hesiod, thirty-three thousand. 


PRAYERS, SACRIFICES, PURIFICATIONS, ETC. 255 

privilege of protecting offenders, as it was 
considered sacrilege to force from them any 
criminals who had fled to them for safety.. 
There were also sacred fields (repL^vyj) which 
were set apart for religious purposes. 

The sacred persons priests) were in¬ 

trusted with the care of the temples, and oth¬ 
er sacred places, and of the religious ceremo¬ 
nies. Being esteemed as the mediators be¬ 
tween the gods and men, they were conse¬ 
quently held in the highest veneration. The 
chief magistrates were frequently consecrated 
to the priesthood. It wa s required of all priests 
that they should be without blemish in their 
persons and moral character. The high-priests 
(d^is^eic:, (3a(ti'kETs, were ranked the first, 

for they presided at the celebration of the most 
sacred mysteries. These had their inferior 
ministers. 

The women were admitted to sacred offices, 
and were called priestesses. They were 
generally virgins. 


Section JI. 

Prayers, Sacrifices, Purifications, and Oaths. 

At the commencement of any undertaking, 
individuals addressed their prayers to the gods, 
which* they offered up in the morning, the eve¬ 
ning, and at the rising and setting of the sun 
and moon. Prayers were called 



256 ANTiaUITIES- OP GREECE^ 

SsYi(tsi(ff Xiral, &c., and thanksgiving was named 
The greatest reverence was ob¬ 
served in praying to the gods. The usual pos¬ 
ture was that of kneeling, but they occasional¬ 
ly prayed standing, sitting, or wholly prostrate. 

In their public solemnities, the Athenians 
offered their prayers in common, for the pros¬ 
perity of the state and of their allies, for the 
fruits of the earth, for rain, or for deliverance 
from pestilence or famine. The splendor of 
these ceremonies presented an imposing ap¬ 
pearance. The space before the temple and 
the porticoes that surrounded it were filled with 
people. The priests assembled around the 
altar, and recited prayers, after which the sa¬ 
cred hymns were chanted by choruses of youths. 

In the early ages of Greece, sacrifices 
k^a) were of a very simple kind, 
and confined to the fruits of the earth. After¬ 
ward myrrh, frankincense, and costly offerings 
were used ; and subsequently animals. The 
animals usually sacrificed were the ox, the 
hog, the sheep, the kid, the cock, and the 
goose. Each deity had his appropriate victim. 
The animals also differed according to the dif¬ 
ferent classes of the gods: to the infernal and 
evil deities black victims were offered ; to the 
good and celestial, white. 

The rich were required to make costly sac¬ 
rifices, but the poor, who were unable to‘sacri¬ 
fice animals, offered cakes (<7roVava) of barley- 
meal. The largest and principal victim offer- 


PRAYERS, SACRIFICES, PURIFICATIONS, ETC. 257 

ed was the ox. It was required that all the 
victims should be sound, and without blemish. 

The Spartans performed their sacrifices with 
as little display as possible, but the Athenian 
priests were very richly attired. The victim was 
led to the altar adorned with wreaths and gar¬ 
lands, and sometimes with its horns gilded. 
The priests then went round it, and sprinkled 
it with holy water, with which they 

often also sprinkled those persons who were 
present. They then placed upon its head 
cakes made of salt and barley, (ooXai,) and 
plucked from its forehead, between the horns, 
a little hair, which they threw into the fire 
upon the altar. The priest then said, 

‘ Let us pray.’ After prayers, a little wine 
was poured upon the head of the victim, and 
the altars were strewed with frankincense. 
The priest, or his assistant, then knocked the 
animal on the head, and cut its throat. If the 
animal escaped the blow, or did not fall, or 
was a long time in dying, it was deemed un¬ 
acceptable to the gods. The blood of the vic¬ 
tim was received in a vessel. The soothsayer 
or augur ((frXa'/x^o(fx6‘7ros) then examined the en¬ 
trails. Certain parts of the animal were then 
sprinkled with barley-meal, and placed upon 
the altar to be burned. Wine was often pour¬ 
ed upon the flame to make it rise higher. 
There were peculiar ceremonies for each dei¬ 
ty, but the general plan of the sacrifice was 
the same. It was sometimes customary to 
22 * 


258 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


dance around the altars, and sing sacred hymns 
while the sacrifice was burning. The hymns 
(ifatoLvsc:) had their particular names, according to 
the deity in honor of whom they were sung. 

After the sacrifice was over, a feast was 
made, and for that purpose tables were provi¬ 
ded in all the temples. The Greeks continued 
singing throughout the feast, after which 
games were introduced. These being over, 
libations ((f‘n'ov6oLi, Xot^al, p^oa<) of wine were offer- 
.ed to Jupiter, and the tongue of the victim was 
cast into the fire in honor of Mercury, the god 
of eloquence. Libations of wine were also 
made upon the commencement of any journey. 
Other liquids besides wine were used in liba¬ 
tions, as water, honey, milk, and oil. 

The Greeks never entered upon any religious 
duty without previously undergoing some pro¬ 
cess of purification. They always performed 
this ceremony if they were about to visit the 
temples, or to offer sacrifices, or to be initiated 
into any of the sacred mysteries, or to make 
any vow or prayer to the gods. One method 
of purification was by washing the hands in a 
vessel (‘rs^tppavr^^tov) filled with holy water, and 
placed at the entrance of the temple. Anoth¬ 
er method was to draw around the person to 
be purified a squill or sea-onion, ((fxiXXa,) which 
plant was thought to possess peculiar virtues. 
There was also carried around the person a 
young dog, (rfxuXa|.) The Greeks also purified 
themselves after they had committed any act 


PRAYERS, SACRIFICES, PURIFICATIONS, ETC. 259 

by which they thought themselves polluted, 
such as murder, attendance at a funeral; for 
a dead body was thought to pollute every thing 
about it. On this account, the house in which 
the dead had been laid out was purified with 
fire and sulphur. 

The oaths (o^xo») were of two Rinds, the great 
oath and the less oath. The most common 
oath was Md Afa, ‘ By Jupiter.’ The Greeks 
swore, however, by other deities, and some¬ 
times by the dead. 

In swearing, they raised their hands to¬ 
wards heaven; in great oaths, they laid them 
upon the altar. In all private contracts the 
individuals concerned pledged their faith by 
taking each other by the right hand. In sol¬ 
emn and important treaties, they sacrificed to 
the gods, and prayed to them that he who 
should first violate the conditions of the oath 
might die in the same manner as the victim 
just sacrificed. Perjured persons sometimes 
were punished with death. Yet the Greeks 
w'ere by other nations charged with perfidy, 
and the phrase GrcBca jides, ‘Grecian faith,’ 
was a proverb applied to inconstant and de¬ 
ceitful persons or nations. 


Section III. 

Divination and Oracles. 

The power of prying into futurity, or divi- 



2G0 


ANTIQUITIES OF GREECE. 


nation, (fxavrjxi^,) was universally accredited 
among the Greeks. There were several dif¬ 
ferent kinds of divinations.. The following 
were the principal. 

1. Divination by appearances in the heav¬ 
ens, such as thunder, lightning, comets, eclipses, 
and meteors. Thunder or lightning on the 
right was deemed a good omen; if on the left, 
a bad one. 

2. Divination by the flight and singing of 
birds, as they were seen or heard on the right or 
left. If a flock of birds flew about any person, it 
was esteemed a lucky omen. The hawk, buz¬ 
zard, swallow, and owl, were considered as 
unlucky birds. The crowing of the cock was 
a favorable omen. 

3. Divination from beasts, insects, and rep¬ 
tiles. Bees were deemed an omen of future 
eloquence. Toads were accounted lucky 
omens, and serpents unlucky. If a timorous 
animal, as a hare, appeared in time of war, it 
signified defeat. 

4. Divination by sacrifices. If the victim 
approached the altar reluctantly, or eluded the 
stroke of the axe, or did not bleed freely, if 
the entrails were decayed or defective, if the 
heart was small, the gods were thought to be 
nnpropitious; if otherwise, the omens were 
good. If the fire was kindled easily, and burn¬ 
ed clearly, if the flame immediately consumed 
the victim, the sacrifice was thought to be 
acceptable. 


DIVINATION AND ‘ORACLES. 


261 


5. Divination by dreams or visions, as when 
gods or spirits conversed with men in their 
sleep, or the images of things about to happen 
were presented to their view. Dreams in 
the early part of the morning, were most re¬ 
garded. 

6. Divination by casting lots, as by throw¬ 
ing into vessels white and black beans, which 
had their characters inscribed upon them. or 
given them before they were thrown; or by 
drawing pieces of paper from an urn, and 
reading the prophetic lines written on them. 

7. Divination by ominous words and things. 
The Greeks were careful to avoid the use of 
ominous words, such as ^avaroc:, ‘death,’ for 
which they often substituted riXos, ‘ the end’ of 
life. Palpitations of the heart, ringings in the 
ears, and sneezing were observed. If the 
ringing was in the right ear, it was deemed a 
good omen. To sneeze between midnight and 
the following noon was esteemed fortunate, 
but between noon and midnight, unfortunate. 
All unusual accidents were presages from 
which future events were inferred. 

Of all kinds of divination, oracles 
were held in the highest repute, as they were 
supposed to proceed directly from the gods. 
They were consulted in all important affairs. 
If a form of government was to be altered 
laws to be enacted, war declared, or peace 
concluded, the will of the gods was sought by 
consulting the oracles. No one could consult 


262 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


the oracles without first making rich presents 
and offering sacrifices to the gods, and this 
only upon stated days. Jupiter was the most 
eminent of all the deities who presided over 
oracles, and next to him Apollo. The general 
characteristics of the answers of the oracles 
were ambiguity, obscurity, and a susceptibility 
of changing the terms or expressions, so as to 
apply to various* and opposite events. 

The oracle of Jupiter at Dodona, a city of 
Epirus,, was much celebrated. At the side of 
the temple was a forest of oaks, one of which 
was called the divine or prophetic oak, though 
all the trees were thought to be gifted with 
the spirit of prophecy. It is supposed that 
the priests or priestesses, when they were con¬ 
sulted, ascended one of these oaks, and gave 
their answers. 

The oracle of Trophonius in Boeotia was 
in great reputation. After many preliminary 
ceremonies', such as washing, offering sacri¬ 
fices, drinking from the fountain of Lethe, the 
votaries went down into a cave, (at night on¬ 
ly.) by means of small ladders. At the bottom 
was another little cavern, of which the en¬ 
trance was very small. Their feet were placed 
within the opening of the little cave, which 
was no sooner done, than they perceived them¬ 
selves borne into it with great force and velo¬ 
city. They were required to carry with them 
cakes made of honey in each hand. Futurity 
was revealed to them in frightful voices and 


DIVINATION AND ORACLES. 


263 


terrific appearances, and they- generally re¬ 
turned quite stupified. 

But the most celebrated of all the Grecian 
oracles was that of Apollo at Delphi. He 
was worshipped there under the name of the 
Pythian, from the serpent P 3 "thon, which he 
had there killed. Delphi stood upon a decliv¬ 
ity about the middle of mount Parnassus. On 
the declivity of the hill was discovered a cav¬ 
ern, from which issued a strong sulphurous 
vapor, producing a kind of intoxication of the 
brain of those who approached it. The per¬ 
sons under the influence of this phrensy would 
utter incoherent sounds and words which were 
supposed to foretell futurity. A priestess was 
appointed, called Ilu^/a, to receive the inspira¬ 
tion from the cavern, and thence give her ora¬ 
cles. A temple was erected, which became a 
most costly and magnificent building. It was 
surrounded with statues and the richest works 
of art, and was filled with the most costly 
presents to the god, w^hich were brought from 
every part of the world. At first a single 
priestess sufficed to answer to those who came 
to consult the oracle, but afterwards there were 
two others appointed. 

Ovor the vent, from whence issued the pro¬ 
phetic exhalation, was placed a tripod, upon 
which the Pythian sat and gave her responses. 
She could not prophecy till she was intoxicated 
by the vapor from the sanctuary. The mo¬ 
ment she was seated upon the tripod, the di- 


264 ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 

vine vapor began to produce the most singular 
and violent effects upon her. Her eyes rolled 
wildly, her hair stood erect, her whole frame 
was convulsed, and she uttered the wildest 
and most incoherent cries. It was the few 
words that she thus uttered, that the priests 
carefully collected, and afterwards delivered 
to those who came to consult the oracle. The 
reputation- of this oracle almost effaced that 
of all others. 

There were oracles in all parts of Greece, 
but the three which have been noticed were 
the most eminent. 


Section IV. 

Grecian Festivals, 

The Festivals of the Greeks were acts of 
religion, since they were instituted in honor of 
the gods to avert some evil, or obtain some 
good, or to return thanks to them for some 
blessings conferred. There were also festivals 
in honor of illustrious men. An infinite num¬ 
ber of these feasts were celebrated in the sev¬ 
eral cities of Greece, and especially at Athens. 

The Panathenea (nava5>jvaia) was celebrated 
at Athens in honor of Minerva, the tutelary 
goddess of that city. It was at first called 
from her name, Athenia, but after Theseus 



GRECIAN FESTIVALS. 


265 


had united the several towms of Attica into 
one city, it took the name of Panathenea. 
These feasts were of two kinds, the great and 
the less, which were observed with almost the 
same ceremonies, the less annually, and the 
great, upon the expiration of every fourth 
year, and with greater pomp and magnificence 
than the less. In these feasts were exhibited 
races, gymnastic exercises, and combats, and 
contention for the prizes of music and poetry. 
Whoever obtained the victory in any of the 
games of this festival was rewarded with a 
vessel of oil, and a crown of olives. This 
feast continued several days. 

The Dionysia (A«ovuV/a) were festivals in ho¬ 
nor of Bacchus, (Ajovuaof.) They were also 
called o^ja, from the fury (o^y-n) of the Baccha¬ 
nalians. In these feasts the public were en¬ 
tertained with games, shows, and dramatic 
representations, which were attended by a vast 
concourse of people. At the same time the 
poets disputed for the prize of poetry. 

These feasts continAied many days. Those 
who attended, mimicked whatever the poets 
had thought to feign of the god Bacchus. Men 
and women ridiculously • transformed them¬ 
selves, by putting on the skins of wild beasts; 
and in this manner appeared night and day in 
public, imitating drunkenness, and dancing in 
most indecent postures, screaming and howling 
furiously, ’Euo» Baxy^s and ’Iw There were 

two kinds of these festivals, the greater and 
23 


266 


ANTIQUITIES OF GREECE* 


the less ; the former celebrated in the city, the 
latter in the country. 

There is nothing in all Pagan antiquity 
more celebrated than the feasts of Ceres, at 
Eleusis, hence called the Eleusinian Mysteries, 
(-’EXsuo'jvia,) which were celebrated every fifth 
year by the Athenians, and were of nine days 
continuance. 

The temple in which the ceremonies of ini¬ 
tiation were performed was constructed of the 
best quality of Pentelic marble, and in a most 
magnificent manner. None but the initiated 
were permitted on any pretence to enter the 
temple. The priest who initiated persons into 
the mysteries of the greater feast was called 
"U^o:pavTr)Sf ‘ a revealer of holy things.’ The 
ceremony of initiation was performed at night. 
What these mysteries or secrets were, is not 
fully known, as all were bound by an oath not 
to reveal them. It is very generally agreed 
that they were subservient to the cause of vir¬ 
tue and religion. The character of every ap¬ 
plicant for initiation was carefully examined, 
and a whole year was devoted to this purpose. 
During the festival it was unlawful to seize 
criminals or commence any lawsuit. Various 
games, combats, processions, and amusements 
were solemnized during the feast. 

There were numerous other festivals, but all 
of minor importance. 


ATHLETIC EXERCISES. 


267 


CHAPTER VI. 

GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS OF THE GREEKS. 


Section I. 

Athletic Exercises. 

There were five principal exercises prac¬ 
tised in the Grecian games, viz.: Running 
races on foot and on horse, ;) Leaping, 

(aXfia ;) Boxing, (‘jrvyfiT) ;) Wrestling, ('nraXr) ;) 
and throwing the Discus or Quoit, The 

general name of Athletse (ddXvjTou) was given 
to those who exercised themselves with a de¬ 
sign to dispute the prizes in the public games. 

Of all the exercises which the Athletac cul¬ 
tivated, running was in the highest estimation. 
The place where they exercised themselves 
was called the stadium, ((frdSiov.) The runners 
or racers, upon the signal being given, rushed 
forward to the goal (tsXo?, Ts^jaa, tfxo-n'oV) with 
their greatest swiftness, and he who first reach¬ 
ed it, received a prize, (^Xov, jS^a^sTov.) 

There were also horse races, and chariot- 
races. These latter were in high renown. 



268 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


The skill of the charioteer was exhibited in 
turning the boundary or goals, (vuo’o'aj.) by keep¬ 
ing as near it as possible, and yet avoiding it. 

Leaping was sometimes performed with the 
hands empty, and at other times with weights 
of lead or stone, which were thrown forward 
by the motions of the arms in jumping, and 
thus enabled the Athletae to leap further than 
they could without them. 

In boxing, the combatants covered their fists 
with a kind of offensive arms, called cestus, 
(i/jiag,) which was a glove made of straps of 
leather and plated inside with brass, lead, or 
iron. Their use was to strengthen the hands 
of the combatants, and to add violence to the 
blows. Boxing was one of the most danger¬ 
ous of the gymnastic combats, because, beside 
the liability of being crippled, the combatants 
ran the hazard of their lives. Seldom did one 
gain a victory without paying for it with the 
loss of an eye, or the severe maiming of some 
part of the body. He who yielded the victo¬ 
ry to his antagonist, acknowledged his defeat 
either by his voice, by letting his arms fall, or 
by sinking to the ground. 

Wrestling was at first practised with little 
art, but afterward more address and skill were 
employed. The wrestlers, before they began 
the combat, anointed their bodies with oil to 
give flexibility to their limbs; and then rolled 
themselves in the dust to -prevent the skin 
from being too slippery. Several matches 


THE GAMES, ETC. 


269 


contended at the same time. To obtain the 
victory it was necessary for one to throw his 
adversary twice, and to renew the combat 
three times. The Pancratium (‘Travx^anov) was 
a contest which included both boxing and 
wrestling. The Pancratiast was allowed to 
gain the victor}" over his adversary in any man¬ 
ner, as by scratching, biting, kicking, together 
with any artifice of boxing or wrestling. 

The Discus or Quoit was of a round form, 
made sometimes of wood, but more frequently 
of stone, lead, iron, or brass. It had a hole in 
the centre, through which was put a thong, 
by means of which it was thrown. This exer¬ 
cise was a trial of bodily strength more than 
of skill. The Athletae did not endeavor to 
strike a given mark with the discus, but to 
throw beyond their competitors. They all 
used the same discus, and he who threw it far¬ 
thest was the victor. 


Section II. 

The Games, Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, and 
Isthmian. 

There were four kinds of games solemnized 
in Greece ;—the Olympic, the Pythian, the Ne¬ 
mean, and the Isthmian. These differed from 
each other chiefly in the places where they 
23 * 


i 


270 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


were celebrated; the ceremonies and exercises 
in each being nearly the same. 

Amongst all these games, the Olympic held 
the first rank, and that for three reasons:— 
They were sacred to Jupiter, the greatest of 
the gods;—instituted by Hercules, the first of 
heroes ;—and celebrated with more pomp and 
magnificence, amidst a greater assemblage 
of spectators from all parts, than any of the 
rest of the games. They were celebrated at 
Olympia, a town of Elis, in Peloponnesus, 
after the expiration of every four years; and 
continued five days. It was not permitted for 
any woman to be present except the priest¬ 
esses of Ceres, upon pain of death ; for at 
many of the exercises the combatants fought 
naked. The ceremonies of these games com¬ 
menced with sacrifices on the night preceding 
the first day; and at day-break the games 
commenced. These continued during the five 
days of the celebration; and were those no¬ 
ticed in the preceding section. Judges were 
appointed to preside over the games, to award 
the prizes, and to punish with scourging all 
who were guilty of any irregularity or unfair¬ 
ness. The moral character of those who were 
about to engage as combatants was carefully 
examined. 

These games were not devoted exclusively 
to contests of physical power. They were 
intellectual as well as gymnastic festivals. 
The poets, orators, and historians here recited 


THE GAMES, ETC. 


271 


their productions; and in the presence of the 
whole assemblage had the prizes awarded to 
them. ^ 

The Greeks thought nothing comparable to 
the victory in these games. They looked 
upon it as the perfection of glory, and did not 
believe that mortals could desire any thing be¬ 
yond it. In the Olympic games the reward ot 
the victor was a simple wreath of wild olive. 
He was also carried home in a triumphal char¬ 
iot, and sometimes the honor was paid to him 
of dating the year with his name. 

The influence of these games upon the char¬ 
acter of the Greeks was very beneflcial. In 
training themselves for these severe exercises, 
they were preparing for the hardships and 
contests of war. In no way, however, were 
the games more decidedly beneflcial than in 
encouraging a literary spirit and in diffusing 
literary information. The most distinguished 
authors of Greece obtained prizes at Olympia, 
for excelling in contests of mental power. 

The Olympic games were established about 
776 years before Christ, from which period the 
Olympiads are reckoned. 

The Pythian games were Celebrated in ho¬ 
nor of Apollo, at Delphi; and were at first 
held every nine years, and consisted only of 
musical contests ; but afterward they were ob¬ 
served every five years, and were solemnized 
with the same exercises and contests which 
were practised in the Olympic games. Songs, 


272 


ANTIQUITIES OP GREECE. 


dances, and musical instruments were intro¬ 
duced. The prizes were garlands of laurel. 

The Neme^n games received their name 
from Nemea, a city and sacred grove of Ar- 
golis. They were celebrated every third year, 
or more properly on the first and third year of 
every Olympiad. The exercises were princi¬ 
pally the same as in the other games; and the 
victors were at first crowned with a wreath of 
olive, but afterwards with parsley. 

The Isthmian games received the name from 
the Isthmus of Corinth, where they were cel¬ 
ebrated. They were consecrated to Neptune. 
They were solemnized every three years. The 
prize at first was a crown of pine, afterwards 
of dry parsley; and again the pine was re¬ 
stored. The inhabitants of Elis were the only 
people of Greece who were not admitted to 
these games, in consequence of a dreadful ex¬ 
ecration denounced against them if they ever 
should be present. 


Section III. 

The Theatre and Drama, 

There were many tragic and comic poets 
before Thespis, but as he was the first that 
made any improvements in the poem and its 
manner of representation, he is generally 



THE theatre and DRAMA. 


273 


considered the inventor of the Grecian Drama, 
and the founder of the Grecian Theatre. But 
-dEschylus was the founder of a fixed and du¬ 
rable theatre, adorned with suitable decora¬ 
tions. It was first built of wood, but after¬ 
ward the most superb and magnificent struc¬ 
tures were erected. 

The theatre was divided into three principal 
parts :—1. The stage or scene, (Xeysfov, (fxrjvyj,) 
where the actors stood during the performances, 
and where were represented paintings, and 
objects that corresponded with the piece per¬ 
formed. 2. The orchestra, (o^^o’T'^a,) the place 
assigned for pantomimes, dancers, and the cho¬ 
rus. 3. The theatre, (^iar^ov,) where the spec¬ 
tators sat. This last must have been of vast 
extent, as at Athens it was capable of contain¬ 
ing above thirty thousand persons. The the¬ 
atre was of a semicircular form. The space 
contained within the semicircle was allotted 
to the spectators, and had seats placed, one 
above another, to the top of the building. In 
front of the spectators was the orchestra, and 
still farther in front was- the stage and scene. 

The great theatres had three rows of porti¬ 
coes erected one upon another, which formed 
the body of the edifice ; and three different 
stories for the seats. The theatres were all 
open above, and the plays were always repre¬ 
sented in daylight, and in the open air. 

The number of actors (C<7rox|»raj) which ap¬ 
peared on the stage at anv one time was 


274 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


three. As a body of men, the actors were dis¬ 
solute in habits and morals; yet there were 
some honorable exceptions. 

The fondness for theatrical representations 
was no doubt one of the principal causes of 
the degeneracy, corruption, and decline of the 
Athenian republic. 

The progress of the drama was regular, but 
slow, ^schylus gave a new form to tragedy, 
both in its representation, and in its style and 
spirit; and is often on this account esteemed 
the founder of Grecian tragedy. 


CHAPTER VII. 

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS OF THE GREEKS. 


Section I. 

Dwellings, Furniture, ^c. 

The houses (omi) of the Greeks were, in gen¬ 
eral, small and mean, though some individuals 
erected, as private dwellings, edifices which 
almost rivalled the temples in cost and mag¬ 
nificence. They were built of stone, wood, 




DRESS OF THE GREEKS. 


275 


and unburnt bricks dried in the air. There 
was sometimes a small court-yard in front; 
but usually they were built directly upon the 
street, having their upper stories projecting 
somewhat, and their stair-case (x/jh-oI) upon 
the outside. The doors and ^n'uXri) were 
hung upon wooden posts, (‘nra^a&raSsg,) and over 
these were suspended small bells. The men 
and women had distinct apartments, in every 
house, assigned them. 

Amongst the furniture of the Greeks was 
the ‘ a settee‘ a chairxXjo'fxoV, 

‘ a sofa ‘ a footstoolxXiva», ‘ couches 

and r^a-TTs^a, ‘ a table.’ 

Besides the public baths, which at Athens 
were very numerous, most of the more wealthy 
citizens had private baths in their own houses. 

There was a difference between oix'm and 
(Tuvoixjai, the former meaning ‘ dwelling-houses,’ 
which were occupied by one family; and the 
latter, ‘ lodging-houses,’ which were rented for 
lodgings to several families. 


Section II. 

Dress of the Greeks, 

Among the ancient Greeks, the men had no 
coverings for their heads. They afterwards 
wofe hats, (<r<Xo<.) The head-dress of the wo- 



2^6 


ANTIQUITIES OF GREECE. 


men consisted of the veil, (xaXuir'r^a;) a fillet, 
(a,a-7ru|,) with which the hair was tied; a veil, 
(x^y}Ss(j.vov,) which came down upon the shoul¬ 
ders ; a net, (xsx^u^paXocr,) in which the hair w'as 
enclosed; and a mitre or turban, Ear¬ 

rings (s^iJ^ara) and necklaces (o^m-oi) were com¬ 
mon. 

The inner garment both of men and women 
was the tunic, (xi^Civ.) The tunic of the men 
descended to the knees, that of the women to 
their feet. Over the tunic they threw a man¬ 
tle. The exterior garment was the cloak or 
mantle,. (i,u-aTiov,) which was a large piece of 
woollen cloth, nearly square, which was wrap¬ 
ped around the body, or fastened about the 
shoulders ; and served also to wrap themselves 
in at night. The p(;XaIva was a thicker exter¬ 
nal robe, used in cold weather. The X^Sos was 
a light garment, worn in the summer. The 
was the cloak of philosophers and poor 
persons, and was made of very coarse material. 
The (f-ToXv was a long robe that reached to the 
feet. The ^ military cloak. The 

•«]^gXXja were bracelets with which the hands 
and arms of the women were decorated. 

The shoes (v^n'oSvjiJ^ara) were of many kinds. 
They were tied under the soles of the feet 
with thongs or cords, (i.aavrs^.) 

Among the Athenians, the quality of the 
dress differed according to the age, family, 
rank, means, and taste of the wearer. Wool¬ 
len garments were the most common, though 


MARRIAGE CUSTOMS, ETC. 


277 


linen ones were worn, especially by women ; 
and were at a low price, except the finest Jdnds. 

The Spartans had a uniform dress, which 
they preserved for many ages. Their milita¬ 
ry costume was of a red color. 

The Greeks in general set a high value on 
scarlet color, and a still greater on purple. 

The Athenians often wore in their hair 
golden grasshoppers, called rimysg, as emblems 
of the antiquity of their nation, intimating 
that they were sprung from the earth, as they 
supposed the grasshoppers were. 


Section III. 

Marriage Customs, and Condition of Females 
in Greece, 

Marriage was regarded, in all the different 
states of Greece, as a most honorable state of 
life, and received great encouragement by le¬ 
gal regulations. Celibacy was considered a 
very great reproach, and in some communities 
was attended with the infliction of punishment 
by law. The Laceda3monians, particularly, 
were very severe towards those who deferred 
to marry, or who abstained from it altogether. 
No Spartan could live unmarried beyond the 
time prescribed by the laws, without incurring 
various penalties. At Athens no man could 
24 



278 ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 

hold any public office, or even plead any pub¬ 
lic cause, unless he were married, and had 
children, and estates in land, for these were 
considered as so many pledges for his good 
conduct. 

At Sparta, the usual age for men to marry 
was thirty, and for women, tw’enty years. The 
Athenians had a law prohibiting men from 
marrying before the age of thirty-five. 

It was highly disgraceful to marry within 
certain degrees of relationship. The Spartans 
were not permitted to marry any of their kin¬ 
dred. Citizens were forbidden to marry only 
with citizens. The consent of the parents 
was necessary; for parental authority in this 
age was absolute. 

The custom for the wife to bring a dowry 
cps^ii) to her husband, was common in 
nearly all the states of Greece, except in Spar¬ 
ta. When maidens, who were the daughters 
of those who had been serviceable to their 
country, had no relations to assist them, the 
state gave them a portion from the public 
treasury as a dowry. 

Before the solemnization of the marriage, it 
was necessary to offer sacrifices to the gods of 
marriage, and if any unlucky omen appeared, 
the contract was dissolved, and the marriage 
prevented. The maiden also propitiated the 
virgin goddess Diana (who was averse to mar¬ 
riage) by presents. The bride and her retinue 
were dressed in the richest manner. The 


MARRIAGE CUSTOMS, ETC. 


279 


bridegroom generally came to the house of the 
bride in a chariot, and conducted her to the 
temple where the rites were to be performed. 
Many persons preceded and followed the char¬ 
iot, singing the praises of the happy pair, and 
of the gods of marriage. They were received 
at the temple by the priest, who led them to 
the altar, where sacrifices were, offered to Di¬ 
ana. If these were favorable, the father or 
• guardian of the bride took her by the hand 
and presented her to the bridegroom. The 
parties then swore inviolable fidelity to each 
other, and their parents ratified the oaths by 
new sacrifices. These ceremonies were per¬ 
formed in the latter part of the day, so that 
the night came on before they left the temple. 
A procession then preceded the newly-married 
pair, carrying torches and attended by a band 
of musicians, and conducted them to the house 
of the husband, which was hung with gar¬ 
lands, and splendidly illuminated. A sump¬ 
tuous feast was provided, and while they were 
enjoying the repast, they were entertained with 
bands of singers and dancers around the house. 

The marriage ceremonies of the Spartans 
were different from those of all the other Gre¬ 
cian states. Instead of any public celebra¬ 
tion, every thing was done as privately as pos¬ 
sible. When every thing had been settled be¬ 
tween the parties, the bridegroom went se¬ 
cretly to the house of his bride, and carried her 
off by night. Before day he returned to his 


280 


■ ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


companions at the Gymnasia ; and seldom vis¬ 
ited his wife in the day time ; for it was con¬ 
sidered as unmanly to acknowledge the influ¬ 
ence of love, or any other passion, except pat¬ 
riotism: 

The condition of women in Greece, even in 
the ages of the most reflnement and civiliza¬ 
tion, was degraded. They performed every 
servile duty for their husbands, such as draw¬ 
ing water, feeding the cattle, harnessing and ^ 
unharnessing the horses in the chariots, &c. 
Their education, too, was extremely limited, 
seldom knowing how to read or write. They 
\vere considered as the slaves, rather than the 
companions of men; they were not permitted 
to mingle in his society, and were conflned to 
a particular quarter of the house. From most 
of the public games and amusements they 
were rigidly excluded. The Spartan women, 
however, were not under the same restraint, 
as those of other parts of Greece. 


Section IV. 

Education of Children. 

Though the education of children, and es¬ 
pecially of the males, was not neglected in 
any of the states of Greece, yet in Athens 
there was far more attention paid to it than in 



EDUCATION OF CHILDREN. 


281 


the rest of the states. The names of the 
Athenian children were inscribed in the pub¬ 
lic registers soon after their birth. On the 
seventh or tenth day they were named; on 
which occasion sacrifices were offered. For 
the first five years no labor of any kind was 
imposed upon them, and they were left free 
from all restraint of dress, that they might ac¬ 
quire an easy and graceful movement, and a 
vigorous constitution. The male children were 
very early taught to swim, which was consid¬ 
ered an important attainment in a country 
where every citizen was liable to be called to 
serve in the navy. At the age of seveu they 
were enrolled in the register of the tribe to 
which their parents belonged, and were then 
placed under the superintendence of private 
teachers, {‘n'aiSayuyoi^) and the directors of the 
Gymnasia, (‘rraiSor^i^ai.) By the former, their 
minds were stored with virtuous principles, 
arid with the knowledge of the arts and sci¬ 
ences ; and by the latter, they were inured to 
hunger and thirst, heat and cold, fatigue and 
hardships. They were exercised in throwing 
the javelin, to manage the most spirited horses, 
to wrestle and box, to run, throw the discus, 
&c. These exercises were intended to pre¬ 
pare them for war. 

A portion of the day was required to be de¬ 
voted in attendance upon the instructions of 
the grammarians, where they 

were taught ‘ letters,’ which term comprchend- 

24 # 


282 


ANTiaUITlES OP GREECE. 


ed history, poetry, eloquence, and literature in 
general. The most scrupulous attention was 
paid to pronunciation. They were instructed 
in Arithmetic, Geography, Geometry, Tactics, 
Natural Science, and Morals. These various 
branches were taught by professors, who es¬ 
tablished schools for themselves respectively, 
in some department of literature in which they 
considered themselves most proficient. 


Section V. 

Manners and Customs in Private Life. 

The Greeks, as well as most of the nations 
of antiquity, were accustomed to rise early. 
At Athens, they usually rose at day-break, and 
after a few short devotional exercises, entered 
upon the employments of the day. As their 
habits of living were plain, and the necessa¬ 
ries of life procured without money or labor, 
the Athenians had a great deal of leisure time. 
This they spent in various exercises and amuse¬ 
ments, such as hunting, walking, frequenting 
the Gymnasia or Baths. Their habits in later 
times were not so free from luxury. 

The Spartans looked with contempt on the 
festivals, public shows, and other amusements 
of the Athenians. The cultivation of the so¬ 
cial affections was at Sparta disregarded and 



MANNERS, ETC., IN PRIVATE LIFE. 


283 


considered as effeminate. The diet was coarse, 
and the meals eaten at public tables. Orna¬ 
ment had no part in the dress of the Spartan. 
They paid great reverence to age. 

The food (ovpov) of the Greeks consisted more 
of vegetable than animal substances. The 
principal kinds of bread were maize-bread 
(a^o?) and barley-bread, There were 

cakes made of various ingredients. Salt was 
used in every article of food, and in great 
abundance. 

The common beverage was water. When 
wine was used it was always diluted with 
water ; the usual proportions being two parts 
of wine to two parts of water. To drink to 
excess was very disgraceful, and he who com¬ 
mitted a crime when intoxicated was more se¬ 
verely punished than if he had committed it 
when sober. 

The times of eating were four every day. 
1. The morning meal, or breakfast, (dx^ari(Tf/.a, 
u^Kirov,) which was taken about the rising of 
the sun;—2. The meal at noon, or dinner, 
(dsr-rvov;) 3. The afternoon meal, (^sjXivov;) 4. 
The evening meal or supper, which 

was afterwards called 6h‘jrvov. Dinner was a 
short, plain meal; and the supper, taken about 
sunset, was the principal meal of the Greeks. 

There were several kinds of entertainments 
among the Greeks, such as the marriage feast, 
(yd/xog,) and the club feast, (s^avo^,) in which lat¬ 
ter, every one contributed his portion. There 


284 


ANTIQUITIES OF GREECE. 


were also city-feasts and tribe-feasts. Before 
the Greeks went to a convivial entertainment, 
they washed and anointed themselves, and 
those who came from a distance were washed 
and clothed in the house of the entertainer 
(krioLTu^) before they were admitted to the 
feast. It was also customary to wash be¬ 
tween the courses, and then again after sup¬ 
per. At their private meals, the Greeks some¬ 
times sat, but at the entertainments, they al¬ 
ways reclined on couches, leaning on their left 
arm. 

Before they commenced eating, they made 
an offering to the gods of some of their pro¬ 
visions. When the entertainment was finish¬ 
ed, a libation of wine with a prayer was offer¬ 
ed, and a hymn sung to the gods. Music and 
dancing were introduced, and then various oth¬ 
er exercises and amusements. 


Section VI. 

Occupations, Arts, and Sciences. 

The Grecians usually attended but to one 
employment, whether it were civil, agricultu¬ 
ral, commercial, or mechanical. The inhabi¬ 
tants of the country were devoted to agricul¬ 
ture, and those of the city to commerce and 
manufactures. As their habits of living were 



AUTS AND SCIENCES. 


285 


simple, their wants were the more easily sup¬ 
plied ; and hence all had much leisure time 
for amusements, or acquiring knowledge. In 
the useful and necessary arts, the Greeks never 
made ar^^ great improvement. But in the 
fine arts, Greece was superior to all ancient 
nations, and probably excelled by no modern. 
They carried architecture, sculpture, and 
painting to such a state of perfection, that 
little room is left- for improvement by the 
moderns. Their architecture (d^irsxrovix'f) con¬ 
sisted of three distinct orders, the Doric, the 
Ionic, and the Corinthian. The Doric possess¬ 
ed a masculine grandeur and sublime simpli¬ 
city. The Ionic was marked with graceful¬ 
ness and elegance. The Corinthian affected 
the highest magnificence and ornament, by 
uniting the characteristics of the other orders. 

In sculpture the Greeks excelled no 

less than in architecture. Specimens of their 
skill in this art are considered perfect models. 

In painting, (/^acpixii,) though but few speci¬ 
mens have reached us, they are supposed also 
to have greatly excelled, as the productions of 
their celebrated painters were highly extolled 
by the writers of antiquity. Painting was 
considered an elegant accomplishment, and 
the sons of the richest citizens generally de¬ 
voted much time to it. 

In music the Greeks were celebra- 

* ted, but they appear to have been less versed 

* in this branch of the fine arts, than several 


286 ANTIQUITIES OF GREECE. 

modern nations. It was deemed an indispen¬ 
sable branch of education among the Athe¬ 
nians. With the Spartans, also, music was a 
favorite amusement, but it was entirely of a 
martial kind. But at Athens every species of 
music was cultivated to a high degree. There 
were seven notes, and four modes, (vo>ot,)— the 
Phrygian, which was religious or sacred; the 
Doric, which was martial; the Lydian, which 
was sad and plaintive; and the Ionic, which 
•was gay, lively,, and brilliant,' and used upon 
festive occasions. In their instrumental mu¬ 
sic they used principally the lyre, (xt&a^a,) the 
flute, (auXo^,) and the pipe, 

In writing they generally used black 

ink, (/AgXav y^atpixov.) Their paper was 

made from several materials, as from the skins 
of beasts, bark of trees, and from the Egyp¬ 
tian papyrus, which was a kind of flag.* The 
pen or stylus (tfryXo^) was made of iron, ivory, 
reeds, or quills. 

In science and literature, Greece was the 
glory of the whole earth. Poetry, Oratory, 
Histor}^ and Philosophy were cultivated among 
them in the highest degree. Their philosophy 
was, however, merely speculative, and seldom 
based upon facts. 


♦ See Roman Antiquities, Chap, vi., Sect. vL 


TREATMENT OF THE DEAD, ETC. 


287 


Section VII. 

Treatment of the Dead, Funeral Rites, (fee. 

The funerals of the Greeks were attended 
with many ceremonies, showing that they con¬ 
sidered the duties belonging to the dead to be 
of the highest importance. In their opinion it 
was the most awful of all iniprecations to wish 
that a person might die without the honor of 
burial; and of all kinds of death, that by ship¬ 
wreck was deemed the most terrible, since the 
body was not then interred. The reason why 
they were so religiously solicitous respecting 
the interment of the departed was, in conse¬ 
quence of their firm belief that their spirits 
or souls could not be admitted into the Elysian 
fields, but would wander desolate and wretched 
upon the banks of the river Styx, till their bodies 
were deposited in the earth. 

When any person was thought to be danger¬ 
ously ill, they placed over his door branches of 
buckthorn and laurel—the former to ward off 
evil; and the latter to render Apollo, the god 
of medicine, propitious. When he appeared 
at the point of death, it was customary for his 
relations and friends to assemble around his 
bed, to kiss and embrace him, to bid him fare¬ 
well, and to catch his dying words, which they 
ever after repeated with the greatest rever¬ 
ence. As soon as he had expired, they beat 


288 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


brazen kettles, by which they designed tof 
drive away evil spirits, and to secure his soul 
from the Furies. The relations closed his 
eyes and mouth, covered his face, washed his 
body, anointed it with oil, wrapped it in linen 
cloth, decked it with garlands of flowers, and 
laid it out at the entrance of the house, that 
all might readily see it. Before interment, a 
piece of money was put into the mouth of the 
corpse, generally an obolus, which was to be 
Charon’s fare for ferrying the departed spirit 
across the Styx. A cake of flour and honey 
was also put into his mouth, to appease the 
fury of the dog Cerberus, who guarded the en¬ 
trance of the place of departed spirits. 

The usual time of burial was on the third 
or fourth day after death. The funeral cere¬ 
mony was performed in the daytime, but it 
was customary to carry lighted torches at all 
burials. The procession was generally on 
horseback or in carriages; but at the funerals 
of distinguished personages the company went 
on foot, which was thought to show more re¬ 
spect. The relations went next to the corpse. 

The custom of burning the dead was com¬ 
mon among the Greeks. When the funeral 
pile (‘Tf'u^a) upon which the body was consumed 
was burnt down, they extinguished the Are 
with wine, and collected the bones and ashes. 
These they deposited in urns, (x^X-rat, &c.,) 
which they buried. 

The Greeks expressed their sorrow for the 


TREATMENT OF THE DEAD, ETC. 289 

dead in various modes of mourning, such as, 
abstaining from feasts and entertainments, 
banishing from their houses all musical instru¬ 
ments, absenting themselves from society, di¬ 
vesting themselves of all ornaments, jewels, 
&c., putting on mourning garments of black 
and coarse materials, shaving off their hair, 
sprinkling ashes upon their heads, walking 
softly, to express faintness and loss of strength, 
beating their breasts, accusing the gods. 

The dead were sometimes buried in temples, 
but usually in the public burial-places with¬ 
out the city walls, by the side of the highways. 
The Spartans, however, buried their dead usu¬ 
ally within the city. Tombstones were pol¬ 
ished and adorned with great art. The mon¬ 
uments of various kinds were called by the 
general name fxvr]|xl»a. A cenotaph (x£vora(pia) 
was an empty monument erected to such as 
had been buried in another place, or to such 
as had perished without any burial. To de¬ 
face a sepulchre was a most sacrilegious crime. 

There were various honors paid to the dead, 
such as funeral orations, games, repasts, sac¬ 
rifices, and libations. Most of the honors were 
paid on the ninth day after the funeral, and 
also on the thirtieth. 


25 


290 


ANTIQUITIES OP GREECE. 


CHAPTER VIII. 

TIME, MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEY OP THE 
GREEKS. 


Section I. 

Divisions of Time, 

The Grecians computed time in years, (gV>],) 
months, and days, The year 

of the Athenians began on the first new moon 
after the summer solstice, which now takes 
place on the 21st of June. Their year was 
divided into twelve months, each of which 
contained thirty and twenty-nine days alter¬ 
nately. The time thus lost, by using the lunar 
instead of the solar year, was made up by in¬ 
serting intercalary months in different years. 
Their year beginning in the last part of June, 
their first month comprised the greater part of 
July, which month is usually considered as 
their first month. 

The names of their months were—1. ’Exa- 
9'o,a/3atwv, ‘July;’—2. MsraysjTvjwv, ‘August;’— 
3. Bo>)5^o|Aiwv, ‘ September;’—i. IIuavsN^iwv, ‘ Oc- 


DRY MEASURES, ETC. 


291 


tober — 5. Maiaaxnipjwv, ‘ November— 6, IIo- 
(fstSs^v, ‘ December —7. ra,a7]Xiwv, ‘ January— 
8. ‘ February —9- ’EXa|37]loX»iijv, 

‘March;’—10. Mouvup^^iwv, ‘April—11. ©a|y»]Xjwv, 
‘May;’—12. 2 xip|io 9 o|»wv, ‘June.’ 

Every month was divided into three parts, 
called decades of days, (Ss^^iks^a,) and their days 
named from these, as the first, second, &c., 
day of the ‘ decade of the beginning,’ ‘ decade 
of the middle,’ or ‘decade of the end.’ 

An Olympiad was a period of four years, at 
the end of which the Olympic games were 
celebrated. The first Olympiad, or rather the 
first year of the first Olympiad, was 776 years 
before Christ. To ascertain to what year of 
the Christian era any given Olympiad corre¬ 
sponds—Subtract 1 from the given Olympiad, 
multiply the. remainder by 4, and add to the 
product the year of the given Olympiad, and 
from this sum subtract 1, and the remainder 
taken from 770, will be the corresponding year 
of our era. Thus, the 3d of the 31st Olympiad 
would be B. C. 654 years. 


Section II. 

Dry Measures, Measures of Length, and 
Weights. 

The principal dry measures were the lidrrig, 
‘ xestes ;’ the ‘ choenix ;’ and the 



292 


ANTiaUITIES OF GREECE. 


‘ medimnus.’ The Medimnus contained 1 bush¬ 
el, 3 gallons, 5 3-4th pints, or about a bushel 
and a half. The Choenix contained 1 15-16th 
pints, or nearly a quart. The Xestes held 
about a pint. The Cotyle (xoruXv)) held half a 
pint. 

The measures of length were— 


Yards Ft. Inches. 

3-4ths. 
1 1 3-5th3. 

1 6 l-8th. 

6 0 1-2 

1611 2 0 


Aa'KTtiXoff, ‘ the digit,’ 


Ylvyn^, ‘ the cubit,’ 
Urjxvs, ‘ the larger cubit,' 


’Opyvirf, ‘ the pace,’ 
WtXiov, ‘ the mile,’ 


The stadium {dMm) was nearly equal to an 
English furlong, or 201 l-3d yards. 

The Grecian foot was nearly equal to 
an English foot, or 1 foot and 7-8ths of an inch. 

The Parasang (‘jra^adayyrig) was a Persian 
measure equal to about 3 1-2 English miles. 

The Plethron (‘rrXsS^ov) was a measure of 
land about 9-40ths of an English acre. The 
Aroura (%oufa) was half a Plethron. 

The Grecian weights, reduced to English 
Troy weights, were— 


lbs. oz. dwt. grs. 

2 16 9-lOths. 



Mva, ‘ the mina,’ or IW drachmae, 1 1 10 10 

TdXavTov, ‘ the talent,’ or 60 minae, 67 7 5 0 

The obolus (o(3o\6g) was l-6th of a drachma, 
and the chalcus l-6th of an obolus. 




TRECIAN MONEV. 


293 


Section III. 


Grecian Money, 


The coin at Athens was noted for its purity, 
being entirely free from alloy. The interest 
of money at Athens varied, according to the 
degree of risk, from twelve to thirty per cent. 
Banks, founded on nearly the same principles 
as those of modern times, were established in 
Athens. 

The coins of Greece, reduced to Federal 


money, were— 


Aerrdv, ‘ the lepton,* (of brass,) 
XaXKds, ‘ the chalcus,’ “ 

’OfioXdf, ‘the obolus,’ “ 

£^paxnn, ‘ the drachma,’ (of silver,) 
Mva, ‘ the mina,’ 

TdXavTov, ‘ the talent,’ 


Dolls, cts. mills. 

1-2 

3 l-4lh 
2 7 5-6ths. 
16 6 2-3ds. 
16 66 6 2-^3ds. 
1000 00 0 


STotTT]^, ‘ the stater,’ was a silver and gold 
coin equivalent to about ^4.62 1-2. There 
were other coins of this name, such as the 
Stater Daricus, Stater Croesi, Stater Philippi, 
&c., which were gold Asiatic coins, and varied 
in value from 84 to $7 each. * 

25* 





MYTHOLOGY. 


It is observable that in all ages and coun¬ 
tries, the several nations of the world, however 
different in their characters, institutions, and 
manners, have always united in one essential 
point—the innate opinion of a worship and 
adoration due to a Supreme Being. Into what¬ 
ever region we cast our eyes, we find priests, 
altars, sacrifices, festivals, religious rites, tem¬ 
ples, or places consecrated to religious wor¬ 
ship. In every race of people we may disco¬ 
ver a reverence for the divinity, and homage 
and worship rendered to him, and an undis¬ 
guised profession of an entire dependence 
upon him in all their undertakings, and occa¬ 
sions of need, adversity, or danger. But mere 
human reason is utterly unable to attain to any 
certain knowledge of the will, law, or attri¬ 
butes of the Supreme Being. For this, a di¬ 
vine revelation is necessary, and such a reve¬ 
lation only the Jews and Christians have ever 
possessed. The ideas of the ancients respect¬ 
ing the nature and worship of God were there¬ 
fore dark, confused, and very imperfect. Their 
whole religious belief, flowing through the un- 



296 


MYTHOLOGY. 


certain channel of tradition, and with such, 
embellishments as poetic genius could invent, 
became more and more corrupt; and the gross¬ 
est polytheism and idolatry prevailed among 
all ancient heathen nations. 

The Greeks and Romans worshipped a mul¬ 
tiplicity of Gods, celestial, aerial, terrestrial, 
and infernal, but these were generally divided 
into three classes;—celestial, marine, and in¬ 
fernal. All the gods and demi-gods were sub¬ 
ject to Jupiter, who was considered the su¬ 
preme deity of these nations. 

The Mythology of the Greeks and Romans 
is a very extensive subject, and it is only in¬ 
tended here to give a general sketch. 

The celestial deities were, Jupiter, Apollo, 
Mars, Mercury, Bacchus, Vulcan, Juno, Miner¬ 
va, Venus, Diana, (Jeres, and Vesta. 

Jupiter, the king of gods and men, was the 
son of Saturn and Rhea or Ops, and born at 
the same time with Juno, on mount Ida, in 
Crete. He dethroned his father, and divided 
his kingdom with his brothers, Neptune and 
Pluto. Neptune had the dominion of the sea 
assigned to him, and Pluto that of the infernal 
regions. The sovereignty of heaven and earth 
Jupiter ^reserved for himself. 

One of his great exploits was the conquest 
of the Titans or giants, who heaped moun¬ 
tains upon mountains for the purpose of scal¬ 
ing heaven. He was guilty of indulging in 
the basest lusts, although he is generally rep- 


MYTHOLOGY. 


297 


resented as the father of gods and men, as 
shaking heaven and earth with his nod, and 
governing all things, except the Fates, by his 
supreme power. 

He is usually represented as sitting on an 
ivory throne, holding a sceptre in his left hand 
and a thunderbolt in his right, with an eagle 
at his feet; and Hebe, the daughter of Juno, 
and goddess of youth, or the boy Ganymedes, 
the son of Tros, his cup-bearer, attending him. 

Apollo, the son of J upiter and Latona, born 
in the island of Delos, was the god of poetry, 
music, medicine, divination, the fine arts, and 
archery. He was also called Phoebus or Sol. 
He had many oracles, and was called by vari¬ 
ous names from the places where he was wor¬ 
shipped. For his offence in killing the Cyclops, 
he was banished from heaven, and obliged to 
hire himself as a shepherd to Admetus, king 
of Thessaly; in which occupation he remain¬ 
ed nine years. 

He is represented as a tall, beardless youth, 
with long hair, holding a bow and arrows in 
his right hand, and in his left a lyre or harp. 
He is crowned with laurel, which was sacred 
to him, as were the hawk and raven among 
birds. 

Mars, the son of Juno, was the god of war, 
and patron of all that is bloody and cruel. The 
most ravenous animals were sacred to him. 
He is represented as an old man, of a fierce 
aspect, armed with a spear, riding in a char- 


298 


MYTHOLOGY. 


iot drawn by two horses called Flight and Ter¬ 
ror. with his sister Bellona for his charioteer. 

Mercury, the son of Jupiter and Mai, was 
the messenger of the gods, the patron of trav¬ 
ellers, shepherds, orators, merchants, thieves, 
and all dishonesty. His exploits* abundant¬ 
ly support his character. He is represented 
as a beardless youth, having a winged cap 
(Petasus) on his head, winged sandals {Tala¬ 
lgia) on his feet, and a rod or wand (Caduceus) 
with two serpents bound round it in one hand, 
and in the other a purse. 

Bacchus, the son of Jupiter and Semele, 
was the god of wine and hilarity. He is rep¬ 
resented always young, corpulent, and ruddy, 
crowned with vine or ivy leaves, holding in 
his hand a thyrsus^ or spear, bound with ivy, 
his chariot drawn by lions or lynxes, attended 
by Bacchanals and Satyrs. 

Vulcan, the son of Jupiter and Juno, and 
husband of Venus, was the god of fire, and of 
those who wrought in the metallic arts. He 
was kicked out of heaven by Jupiter for at¬ 
tempting to deliver his mother from a chain 
by which she was suspended. He continued 
to descend nine days and nights, and alighted 
on the island of Lemnos ; but was crippled 
ever after. On this island he had his w'ork- 
shop, and also in a cave of Mount ^tna. His 

* For the exploits and a minute description of the various 
deities, the reader is referred to some Classical Dictionary, 
or larger works on Mythology. 


MYTHOLOGY. 


299 


workmen were the Cyclopes^ giants with one 
eye in their forehead, who were usually em¬ 
ployed in making thunderbolts for Jupiter. 
Vulcan is usually represented as a lame black¬ 
smith, working at his forge, one hand raising 
a hammer, the other holding a thunderbolt 
with pincers on an anvil. An eagle waits to 
carry it to Jupiter when finished. 

Juno, the sister and wife of Jupiter, was the 
queen of the gods, and the goddess of mar¬ 
riage and child-birth. She was born at Argos, 
or, according to some, at Samos. She was 
haughty, imperious, and extremely jealous, 
yet she was held by the ancients in the high¬ 
est veneration, and there was no other deity, 
except Apollo, whose worship was more sol¬ 
emn or extensive. 

She is represented in a long robe, and mag¬ 
nificent dress, sitting or standing in a light 
chariot drawn by peacocks, attended by the 
AurcB, or air-nymphs, and by Iris, the goddess 
of the rainbow. A golden sceptre is usually 
in her hand, and a diadem adorned with jew¬ 
els on her head. 

Minerva or Pallas, the goddess of wisdom, 
is said to have sprung completely armed from 
the brain of Jupiter, by the stroke of Vulcan. 
She was the most accomplished of all the 
goddesses, and her worship was universally 
established, but at Athens, (which received its 
name from her,) she was especially worship¬ 
ped. She was the patroness of ship-building, 


300 


MYTHOLOGY. 


navigation, of war, and of all the useful sci¬ 
ences and arts, such as weaving, spinning, &c. 

She is represented as a majestic female, 
completely armed, of a commanding aspect, 
bearing a golden breast-plate, a spear in her 
right hand, and her shield (called cegis) in her 
left, having on it the head of the Gorgon Me¬ 
dusa, whose hair was serpents. Her helmet 
w^as crowned with olives, and at her feet was 
an owl or cock. 

Venus, the goddess of love and beauty, is 
said to have been produced from the foam of 
the sea near the island Cythera ; but, accord¬ 
ing to some, she w^as the daughter of Jupiter 
and the nymph Dione. She w'as the wife of 
Vulcan, but unfaithful to him, and licentious 
in the highest degree. Her worship was cele¬ 
brated with the most disgraceful rites and 
ceremonies. The island of Cyprus w^as her 
favorite residence. 

She is represented as a beautiful woman, 
richly attired, and girt about the waist with a 
cestus or zone, which had the power of in¬ 
spiring love ; the Graces and Cupid attending 
her. 

Diana, the sister of Apollo, was the goddess 
of the woods and of hunting. She devoted 
herself to perpetual celibacy, and had for her 
attendants eighty nymphs, all of whom ab¬ 
jured the rites of marriage. 

She is represented as a tall, majestic, and 
beautiful virgin, with a quiver on her shoulder, 


MYTHOLOGY. 


301 


and a javelin or bow in her right hand, cha¬ 
sing deer, or other animals. 

Ceres, the daughter of Saturn and Cybele, 
and sister of Jupiter, was the goddess of corn 
and harvest, and all the arts of agriculture. 
She was the first who taught men to cultivate 
the earth. To her honors the celebrated Eleu- 
sinian Mysteries* were celebrated. 

She is represented as a majestic and beauti¬ 
ful woman, her head crowned with ears of 
corn, in one hand corn or poppies, and in the 
other a lighted torch. 

Vesta was the goddess of fire, and guardian 
of houses and hearths. She ever continued a 
virgin.—She is represented in a long, flowing 
robe, a veil on her head, a lamp in one hand, 
and a javelin in the other. 

The marine deities were Neptune and his 
wife Amphitrite, Oceanus and his wife Thetys, 
Triton, Proteus, Nereus, and his sister and wife 
Doris, &c. 

Neptune, the brother of Jupiter, was the god 
of the sea, and second in rank among the gods. 
Having conspired against Jupiter, he was ban¬ 
ished from heaven, and for one year made sub¬ 
ject to Laomedon, king of Troy, where he as¬ 
sisted to build the walls of that city. He is rep¬ 
resented seated in a cKariot made of a sea-shell 
drawn by sea-horses, surrounded by tritons, 
nymphs, and sea-monsters. On his head he 


* See Grecian Antiquities, chap. v. sec. iv. 
26 


302 


MYTHOLOGY. 


wears a crown, and in his hand holds a tri¬ 
dent. 

OcEANus was the son of Coelum and Terra, 
(that is, of Heaven and Earth.) He was call¬ 
ed the father of gods and men, animals and 
rivers. He and his wife Thetys are said to 
have had three thousand sons. 

Triton was the son of Neptune and his wife 
Amphitrite ; he was the herald and trumpeter 
of Neptune and Oceanus. Half of him re¬ 
sembles a man ; the other part is like a fish ; 
his feet are like those of a horse, his tail is 
cleft, and his hair resembles wild parsley. His 
trumpet is a large conch, or sea-shell. 

Proteus, the son of Oceanus, could foretell 
future events, and change himself into any 
shape. 

Nereus, the son of Oceanus and Thetys, had 
also the faculty of assuming whatever form he 
pleased. By his wife Doris he was the father 
of fifty daughters called Nereids or Oceaniads, 
who were also water-deities. 

The infernal deities were Pluto and his wife 
Proserpine, Plutus, Charon, the Furies, Fates, 
the three judges, Minos, iEacus, and Rhada- 
manthus. 

Pluto, the brother of Jupiter, was the king 
of the infernal regions. The goddesses all 
having refused to marry him, on account of his 
deformity and gloomy disposition, he seized 
Proserpine, the daughter of Ceres, in Sicily, 
and opening a passage through the earth, car- 


MYTHOLOGY. 


303 


ried her to his residence, and made her queen 
of hell. No temples were erected to his honor. 

He is represented seated on a throne of sul¬ 
phur, from beneath which flow the rivers Lethe, 
Phlegethon, Cocytus, and Acheron. His coun¬ 
tenance is stern ; on his head is a helmet; in one 
hand a sceptre, or wand, and in the other, two 
keys. He is in an ebony chariot, drawn by 
four black horses. • 

Plutus was the god of riches. He was lame, 
blind, injudicious, and fearful. He is painted 
with wings, to signify the swiftness of his re¬ 
treat when he departs. 

Charon was the ferryman of hell, an old 
man with gray hair, a long beard, filthy gar¬ 
ments, and an ill-tempered disposition. Every 
ghost paid a small brass coin for his fare. 

None could enter Charon’s boat without a 
regular burial: without this they wandered a 
hundred years, amidst the mud and slime of 
the shore. 

The Furies were three in number, Alecto, 
Tisiphone, and Alegcera. They have faces of 
women, eyes inflamed with wrath, with snakes 
twisted in their hair, holding in their hands 
torches, a whip, and chains. Their office was 
to punish the wicked, and torment their 
consciences. 

The Fates were the daughters of Jupiter 
and Themis. Their names were Atropoa, Clo~ 
tho, and Lachesis. To them was intrusted the 
management of the thread of life ; Clotho held 


304 


MYTHOLOGY. 


the distaff, Lachesis turned the wheel, and 
Atropos cut the thread. They were supposed 
to have absolute power, even over the gods. 

Minos, ^Eacus, and Rhadamanthus were the 
three judges of the souls of the dead. They 
decreed various punishments to the wicked ; 
and to the good they assigned a place in the de¬ 
lightful realms of Elysium. 

There were innumerable other divinities of 
various characters and offices. A very few of 
these only can be here described. 

Cupid, the son of Mars and Venus, was the 
god of love. He is represented as a beautiful 
winged boy, sometimes with a fillet over his 
eyes, a bow in his hand, and a quiver on his 
shoulders; sometimes with a torch in one 
hand, and in the other arrows or darts, with 
which he wounds the hearts of lovers. There 
was another Cupid, the son of Erebus and 
Nox. 

The Graces or Charites were the daughters 
of Bacchus and Venus, and were three in num¬ 
ber, Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyne, By some 
they were said to be the daughters of Jupiter 
and Eurynome. To their influence was as¬ 
cribed all that was pleasing, attractive, and 
graceful in nature and art. They are repre¬ 
sented as young, blooming virgins, usually 
naked, to show their innocency, and holding 
each other by the hand, in token of their mu¬ 
tual affection. 

The Muses, who were the goddesses of the 


MYTHOLOGY. 


305 


arts and sciences, music and poetry, were the 
daughters of Jupiter and Mnemosyne. They 
are generally represented with Apollo at their 
head. The palm-tree, the laurel, and many 
fountains, such as Hippocrene, Castalia, and 
the mountains Parnassus, Helicon, Pierus, and 
Pindus, which they inhabited, were sacred to 
them. The horse Pegasus generally grazed 
upon these mountains. The Muses were nine 
in number, viz: 

1. Calliope, who presided over eloquence 
and heroic poetry. She is represented as a 
young maid crowned with laurel, holding a 
trumpet in her right hand, and in her left a 
book. 

2. Clfo, who presided over history, and is 
represented as Calliope, except sometimes she 
holds a plectrum or quill, with a lute. 

3. Erato, who presided over lyric and ele¬ 
giac poetry, love-songs, and hymns. She is 
represented crowned with roses and myrtle, 
holding a lyre in her right hand, and a lute in 
her left. 

4. Euterpe, who presided over music, espe¬ 
cially that of the flute. She is represented 
crowned with flowers, holding a flute and mu¬ 
sic papers in her hand. 

5. Polyhymnia, who presided over singing 
and rhetoric, and was deemed the inventress of 
harmony. She is represented veiled in white, 
holding a sceptre in her left hand, and with 
her right hand raised up, as if readv to make 

26* 


306 


MYTHOLOGY. 


a speech. She has a crown of jewels on her 
head. 

6. Melpomene, who presided over tragedy. 
She is represented with a magnificent dress, 
wearing buskins, holding a dagger in one 
hand, and in the other a sceptre and crowns. 

7. Thalia, who presided over pastorals and 
comedy. She is represented leaning on a co¬ 
lumn, holding a mask in her right hand, by 
which she is distinguished from her sisters. 

8. Terpsichore, who presided over the harp 
and dancing. She is represented as a young 
virgin crowned with garlands, holding a harp 
in one hand, and surrounded with instruments 
of music. 

9. Urania, who presided over Astronomy. 
She is represented dressed in an azure-colored 
robe, crowned with stars, holding a globe in 
her hands, and having many mathematical in¬ 
struments placed around her. 

Besides these, there were rural deities, as 
Pan, Sylvanus, Priapus, Terminus, Vertumnus, 
and others; there were also the Syrens, the 
Gorgons, Harpies, Dryades, Naiades, Nereides, 
&c. 

Pan was the god of hunters, shepherds, fish¬ 
ermen, and of the mountains and country gen¬ 
erally. He is represented as having two small 
horns on his head; his complexion was ruddy, 
his nose flat, and his legs, thighs, tail, and feet 
were those of a goat; he held a crook in one 
hand, and a pipe in the other. 


MYTHOLOGY. 


307 


Sylvanus presided over gardens and woods. 
He is generally represented holding a cypress 
in his hand. 

Priapus was the tutelar deity of vineyards, 
orchards, and gardens. He is generally re¬ 
presented with a human face, and the ears of 
a goat; he holds a stick in his hand, with 
which he frightens away birds, a club to drive 
away thieves, and a scythe to prune the trees 
and cut down corn. 

Terminus presided over land-marks and 
boundaries. He is represented with a human 
head, without feet or arms, to intimate that 
he never moved from the spot where he was 
placed. 

Vertumnus presided over the spring and or¬ 
chards. He had the power of assuming any 
shape. He is represented as a young man 
crowned with flowers, holding in his right hand 
fruit, and a crown of plenty in his left. 

Flora or Chloris was the goddess of flowers 
and gardens. She is represented as crowned 
with flowers, and holding in her hand the horn 
of plenty. 

Pomona was a nymph who presided over 
gardens, and was the goddess of all kinds of 
fruit-trees. She became the wife of Vertumnus. 

Pales was the goddess of flocks, sheep-folds, 
and pastures. She is represented with a staff 
in her hand and a crown on her head, and was 
sometimes worshipped under trees instead of 
in temples. 


308 


MYTHOLOGY. 


Robigo or Rubigo was the goddess who pre¬ 
served corn from blight. 

The Fauns were rural deities, who inhabit¬ 
ed the fields and formed a part of the train of 
Pan. They are represented as having the hu¬ 
man figure, but with pointed ears and with the 
tail of a goat. 

The Satyrs were also rural demi-gods, who 
chiefiy attended upon Bacchus. They are re¬ 
presented like men, but with the feet and the 
legs of goats, short horns on the head, and the 
whole body covered with thick hair. They 
were sometimes called Silvani. 

The Naiads were nymphs who presided over 
rivers, springs, wells, and fountains. They 
are represented as young and beautiful vir¬ 
gins, often leaning upon an urn, from which 
flows a stream of water. 

The Dryads were nymphs who presided over 
the woods and forests. 

The Hamadryades were nymphs who pre¬ 
sided over trees. Every forest had its Dryad, 
and every tree its Hamadryad. 

The Oreads were nymphs who presided over 
mountains. 

The Limnads were nymphs who presided 
over lakes. 

The Leimoniades were nymphs who presided 
over meadows. 

The Potamids were nymphs who presided 
over rivers. 


MYTHOLOGY. 


309 


The Nereids were nymphs who presided 
over seas. 

The Nap^^e were nymphs who presided over 
groves and vales. 

The Nymphs were of two classes, terrestrial 
and marine. The sea or water-nymphs were 
called by the general name Oceanides. In 
these were included the Nereids^ Naiads, Po- 
tamids, Limnads, &c. 

The Tritons were sea-gods, with their up¬ 
per parts like a man, and the lower parts re¬ 
sembling a fish. 

The Sirens were sea-nymphs who had faces 
like women, and the lower parts of their bo¬ 
dies like fish. . They had such melodious voices 
that mariners and voyagers were often allured 
by their songs to their own destruction, by be¬ 
ing shipwrecked among the rocks which the 
Sirens inhabited. 

The Gorgons were three sisters, Stheno, Eu- 
ryale, and Medusa, all immortal except Medu¬ 
sa. They are represented as having their hair 
entwined with serpents, their hands made of 
brass, their wings the color of gold, their body 
covered with impenetrable scales, and their 
teeth long as the tusks of a wild boar. They 
had the power of turning into stones all those 
who looked at them. 

The Harpies were three sisters, Aello, Ocy- 
pete, and Celeno. They were winged monsters 
with the faces of virgins, the ears of bears, the 
bodies of vultures, human arms and feet, with 


310 


MYTHOLOGY 


long sharp claws. They emitted an infectious 
smell, and polluted whatever they touched by 
their filth. 

The Lares of the Romans were the manes 
{i. e. ghosts or shades) and images of their an¬ 
cestors. Their Penates were household gods, 
being images of such deities as were of divine 
origin. 

Uranus or Ccelus was the most ancient of 
all the gods. He was the father of Saturn. 

Saturn was the god of time and father of 
Jupiter. He is represented as an old man, 
bent through age and infirmity. He holds a 
scythe in his right hand, with a serpent that 
bites its own tail, which is an emblem of time, 
and of the revolution of the year. 

Cybele, the wife of Saturn, was called the 
mother of the gods. She is the same as OpSy 
Rhea, Bona Dea, &lc. She is represented as a 
robust woman, with rising turrets on her head, 
keys in her hand. Sometimes she is riding in 
a chariot drawn by two tame lions. 

Janus was the god of the year, and presided 
over the gates of heaven, and also over peace 
and war. His temple at Rome was open in 
time of war, and shut in time of peace. He is 
represented as having two faces, a key in his 
right hand, and a rod in his left. 

Bellona was the goddess of war and sister 
of Mars. She prepared his horses and chariot 
when he went to war. She is represented as 
holding a scourge in her hand, or a rod tinged 


MYTHOLOGY. 


311 


^vith blood, with dishevelled hair and flaming 
eyes. 

iEoLus was god of the winds and king of 
storms. He is represented as an old man 
with a long beard, holding a sceptre in his 
hand, sitting on a rock, or smiting the rock 
with his trident, at which signal the imprisoned 
winds rush out. Sometimes he is represented 
with a pair of bellows under his feet. 

iEscuLAPius was the god of medicine. He 
is represented with a large beard, holding a 
knotty staff, round which was entwined a ser¬ 
pent, the symbol of convalescence. Near him 
stands the cock, the symbol of watchfulness. 

AsTRiEA was the goddess of justice. She is 
represented as a virgin, with a stern but ma¬ 
jestic countenance, holding a pair of scales in 
one hand, and a sword in the other. 

Ate was the goddess of evil. She raised 
such jealousy and sedition in heaven among 
the gods, that Jupiter banished her forever 
from heaven, and sent her to dwell on earth, 
where she incited mankind to wickedness, and 
sowed commotions among them. She is the 
same as Discordia, 

Aurora was the goddess of the morning. 
She is represented as being drawn in a rose- 
colored chariot, and opening with her rosy fin¬ 
gers the gates of the east, pouring the dew up¬ 
on the earth, and making the flowers grow. 
Her chariot is generally drawn by white hor¬ 
ses, and she is covered with a veil. 


312 


MYTHOLOGY. 


Brizo was the goddess of dreams, worship¬ 
ped in Delos. 

Carna, or Cardinea, was a goddess at Rome, 
who presided over hinges, and over the secret 
parts of the human body. 

. CoMUs was the god of revelry, feasting, and 
nocturnal entertainments. He is represented 
as a youthful and intoxicated man, with a 
garland of flowers on his head and a torch in 
his hand, which seems to be falling. 

Concordia was the goddess of peace and 
concord at Rome. She is represented with 
wreaths of flowers on her head, and in one 
hand two horns of plenty, and in the other a 
bundle of rods, or a pomegranate. 

CopiA was the goddess of plenty among the 
Romans. She is represented as bearing a horn 
■ filled with grapes, fruit, &c. 

CoTYS, or CoTYTTo, was the goddess of de¬ 
bauchery. 

Fama was the goddess of report or rumor. 
She is represented with wings; with as many 
ears, eyes, and tongues, as feathers. She is 
said to fly through the world in the night, and 
in the day-time to look down from high towers 
and roofs: small at first, but gradually increas¬ 
ing in her progress. 

Fides was the goddess of faith, oaths, and 
honesty. She was represented with two hands 
joined close together. 

Fortuna was the goddess of fortune. She 
presided over riches and poverty, blessings and 


MYTHOLOGY. 


313 


misfortunes, pleasures and pains. She was 
represented with a horn of plenty in her hands, 
being blindfolded, and holding a wheel as an 
emblem of her inconstancy. 

Genius was the tutelary god who was sup¬ 
posed to preside over the actions, and to take 
care of every one from his birth to his death. 

Habpocrates was the god of silence. He is 
represented as holding one of his fingers on 
his mouth. 

Hecate was the goddess who presided over 
magic and enchantments. She was repre¬ 
sented with three heads, or sometimes with 
three faces, with serpents hissing around her 
neck and shoulders. 

Hebe, or Juventas, was the goddess of youth. 
She was cup-bearer of the gods, and is repre¬ 
sented with the cup in which she presents the 
nectar, under the figure of a charming young 
girl, her dress adorned with roses, and wearing 
a wreath of flowers. 

The Hor^ were three sisters, Eunomia, Dice, 
and Irene. They presided over spring, sum¬ 
mer, and winter. 

Hygeia, or Hyiea, was the goddess of health. 
She is represented as a maid of slender form, 
with a long, flowing robe. She has a bowl in 
her hand, from which a serpent is eating—an 
emblem of the medical art. 

Hymen^eus, or Hymen, was the god of mar¬ 
riage. He is represented as having around 
his brows the flower of marjoram, in his left 
27 


314 


MYTHOLOGY. 


hand the flame-colored nuptial veil, in his right 
the nuptial torch, and on his feet, golden san¬ 
dals. 

La VERNA was the goddess of thieves and rob¬ 
bers. She was represented by a head without 
a body. 

Libertas was . the goddess of liberty. She 
was represented as & woman in a light dress, 
holding a rod in one hand and a cap in the 
other, both signs of independence, as the for¬ 
mer was used by the magistrates in the manu¬ 
mission of slaves, and the latter was worn by 
slaves who were soon to be set at liberty. 

Libitina was the goddess who presided over 
funerals. 

Lucina was the goddess who presided over 
the birth of children. 

Momus was the god of mirth and pleasantry. 
He is represented raising a mask from his face, 
and holding a small figure in his hand. 

Mors was* one of the infernal deities, and 
presided over death. She was represented as 
a skeleton, clothed in a black garment, armed 
with a scythe and a cimeter. 

Muta was the goddess who presided over 
silence among the Romans. 

N^nia was the goddess of lamentation, who 
Avas invoked at the funerals of the aged. 

Nemesis was one of the infernal deities, and 
the goddess of vengeance or retribution, al- 
w^ays prepared to punish impiety, and at the 
same time liberally to reward the good and 


MYTHOLOGY. 


315 


virtuous. She is represented under the figure 
of a majestic female, clothed in a tunic, a 
crown on her head, a cup in her left hand, 
and grasping her garments with her right. 

ViRiPLACA was a goddess among the Romans, 
who presided over the peace of families. If 
any quarrel occurred between a man and his 
wife, they generally repaired to the temple of 
this goddess, and came back reconciled. 

Veritas was the goddess who presided over 
truth. She is represented as a young virgin, 
dressed in white apparel, with all the marks 
of youthful diffidence and modesty. She was 
sometimes said to hide herself at the bottom 
of a well, to intimate the difficulty with which 
she is found. 

VACUNA was the goddess who presided over 
repose and leisure. 

Auster presided over the south wind. . He 
is represented as an old man with gray hair, 
a gloomy countenance, a head covered with 
clouds, a sable vesture, and dusky wings. He 
was the parent of rain. 

Boreas presided over the north wind. He 
is represented with wings and white hair, and 
always surrounded with impenetrable clouds. 

Eurus presided over the southeast wind. 
He is. represented as a young man, flying with 
great impetuosity, and often appearing in a 
playsome and wanton humor. 

Zephyrus presided over the west wind. He 



316 MYTHOLOGY. J : 

is represented as young and gentle, and his < 
lap is filled with vernal fiowers. 

PiTHo was the goddess of persuasion. She 
is represented with a caduceus at her feet, as 
an emblem of persuasion. 

Phobos or Terror was the god of terror. He 
was represented with a lion’s head. 

SoMNUs was one of the infernal deities, and 
presided over sleep. He is represented as 
sleeping on a bed of feathers, with black cur¬ 
tains. 

Morpheus was also a god of sleep, but infe¬ 
rior to Somnus. He is represented as a sleep¬ 
ing child of great corpulence, and with wings. 
He holds a vase in one hand, and in the other 
some poppies. 

Pax was the goddess of peace. She was 
represented with the horn of plenty, and car¬ 
rying an olive branch in her hand. 

There are many other deities mentioned by 
the classic authors, but these are the principal. 
The number of gods was increased by legisla¬ 
tors, priests, and poets, till it became more than 
thirty thousand. These deities were supposed 
to mingle in the affairs of men, and were re¬ 
presented as being stained with almost every 
vice. 


THE END. 
















